russia Alexander II and III Flashcards
1
Q
what was the % of peasants in 1917
A
80%
2
Q
What forces helped keep Nicholas II in power?
A
The Okhrana (secret police), the Imperial Guard and the Cossacks
3
Q
when was Nicholas I in power
A
1825-1855
4
Q
when was Alexander II in power
A
1855-1881
5
Q
when was Alexander III in power
A
1881-1894
6
Q
when was Nicholas II in power
A
1894-1917
7
Q
Who were the opposition groups to Nicholas II in 1917?
A
Social Democrats - Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries - Left and Right, Liberals - Oktoberists and Kadets
8
Q
when was the Crimean war
A
oct 1853- feb 1856
9
Q
what did the crimean war highlight to russia
A
- they were convinced that they were going to win because they believed that they had the biggest and best army however, they were defeated causing huge humiliation to the country.
- showed that they were a long way behind the west
- defeat hastened the need for change
10
Q
what did alexander II say about the fear of revolt
A
“It would be better to abolish serfdom from above then for it to be abolished from below.”
11
Q
when was the Emancipation Ukases act
A
1861
12
Q
what did the emanciaption act involve?
A
- Serfs released from ownership become free men. They could marry, travel, vote in local elections and trade freely.
- Each serf family entitled to keep its cottage and land.
- Landlords would receive compensation form the government in bonds for lost land.
13
Q
what were the disadvantages of the emancipation act
A
- The serfs were still under the control of the Mir, whose power increased.
- Serfs were required to pay redemption payments for the land they had gained
- They had to pay these over 49 years and there was a 6 % interest change
- They had to remain within their ‘Mir’ (commune) until they had made their full redemption payment
14
Q
what was the impact on the people (emancipation)
A
- This meant that the serfs didn’t really benefit as they weren’t really free as they still had to pay for the land (usually quite poor land) that they owned which meant that they couldn’t really grow enough food for their families and especially not being able to sell it.
- Nobles didn’t really benefit either as they had lost their serfs and land. For this the government gave them compensation for their loss.
- Tsar tried to make everyone more equal however the higher classes didn’t really appreciate this as they didn’t want to be associated with the serfs.
- Some radical intelligentsia reacted badly to the terms of the emancipation as they felt the emancipation had protected the nobles and betrayed the serfs; this led to a growth in opposition
15
Q
when were the military reforms of Alexander II
A
1861-1881
16
Q
what were the main changes in the military reform
A
- Universal conscription was introduced: all social classes were liable for military service at the age of 21. Generally, ¼ would be chosen by lot to serve. This could be avoided if medical evidence was provided or deferred for students to complete their studies.
- Military service was reduced to 15 years, 6 of which were active and 9 years in reserve. Reserve increased from 210,000 to 550,000 from 1862 to 1870.
- Officer training was improved
- Modern riffles and artillery were introduced but this was a slow process and technological progress in weaponry meant that some weapons were superseded begore they were fully introduced.
- Conditions improved for the ordinary soldiers e.g. they were housed in barracks
- Reduction in the number of offences that carried corporal punishment and flogging was abolished.
17
Q
what were the consequences of the military reforms
A
- The reforms were a genuine attempt to break down class privilege but it resulted in a smaller but more professional army
- The nobles maintained a high proportion of officers and Alexander III restricted entry to officer training to nobles when he became Tsar.
- This reform saved money for the government as it was a smaller army and it was supported by trained reserve soldiers which could be brought in and mobilised.
- The Nobility opposed these reforms as they didn’t want their children mixing with the lower class. They preferred the old systems where their sons went into the army as volunteers but returned as war heroes.
- Peasant conscripts were mainly relied on as they were uneducated and illiterate which reduced the effectiveness of their training.
18
Q
why did the military reforms need to introduced
A
defeat in the crimean war meant that they had been humiliated as it was on home soil and they also believed that they were going to win.
19
Q
when were the censorship reforms
A
1860’s
20
Q
what did the censorship reforms involve
A
- Newspapers, books and periodicals didn’t have to submit to priory censorship.
- Newspapers could discuss government policy - editors were given more freedom.
21
Q
what happened after the censorship reform was introduced
A
- More books and periodicals were published under the more relaxed stance.
- Some editors wanted to try and push the boundaries more of what they could publish.
- People were more critical of the government e.g. when reporting court cases.
- Some reported on social issues that the government couldn’t prohibit them from reporting.
22
Q
why was the relaxation of censorship a risky factor for the Tsar
A
the public started having ideas as they were being informed about things in more detail than before. This was risky for the autocratic government as it meant that there was a higher chance of opposition which the government wouldn’t be able to control as the peasant population seriously outweighed the nobels and tsar class
23
Q
when were the education reforms introduced
A
1863-1864
24
Q
what happened in the education reforms
A
- In the first decade the number of pupils doubled. New primary schools were built and were open to all classes. Between 1856-78 the number of primary schools increased from 8000 to 25,000 with a million attending
- Secondary schools were also improving and the number of pupils doubled in the 1860’s. The curriculum was also extended including classics like Latin and Greek and modern subjects like science, maths and languages
- Universities could govern themselves e.g. design their courses, chose their own professors etc.
- Women could attend but not take degrees.
- The number of students grew from 4,000 to 16,000 from 1865 to 1899.
25
consequences of the education reforms
* The increase of primary students had a huge impact in the long term as more literate peasant population took on new aspirations.
* The regime needed students trained to high standards to build modern state bit it di not want them to question the regime. However higher education tended to foster an independent spirit and critical mind. Students began to pay a more significant part in society.
* Many students relied on student funding and were poor and undernourished. They formed mutual-aid groups organising communal kitchen and libraries. They reacted against poor teaching, the strict regulations and the heavy-handed action of the authorities and the police
* Ministry of education took some control of schools away from the zemstva
* Restriction and crackdown on university
* Once again reform had resulted in people questioning the political authority of the regime.
26
why did the education act need to be put in place
the majority of the population (serfs) were uneducated. This meant it was harder for Russia to modernise and they were unskilled meaning they couldn't industrialise
27
when were the local government reforms
1864
28
what happened in the local government reforms
- zemstva bought improvements to the areas in which they operated
- nobles began to gain political experience in managing their own affairs and many wanted to see this at a national level
- professional third element began to make demands for social reforms and improvements to living conditions
29
what were the limitations of the local government reforms
- zemstva were only introduced in a limited number of provinces- so they were slow to get going and did not achieve earlier on
- dominated by nobility- many nobles didn't take their responsibilities
- peasants don't really participate, put off by nobility and they resented paying the zemstva tax which was proportionately higher on the land than on private estates
30
what is the zemstva
- elected district and provincial councils
- were elected by the nobles,town dwellers and peasants
- 40%- nobles and 70%- of provincial councils
- flourished until october 1917
31
how many provinces were the zemstva in
19 provinces
| But, by 1914 it increased to 37 out of 50 provinces
32
when were the judicial reforms
1864
33
what were the problems before the judicial reforms
- Variety of courts, cases could be transferred between each which could take years.
- Most judges had inefficient legal training and were illiterate.
- Court secretaries could, were relied on – many relied on bribes.
- Judges had to adjudicate according to a set of rules (Had to take the word of a noble over a peasant, man over a woman).
- Judges never saw the defendant so the written evidence wasn’t challenged
- Police could levy fines, were also open to bribery.
34
what were the main features of the judicial reforms
* It was simplified and there were fewer courts than previously, each provenance had its own court.
* Judges had a good salary and couldn’t be removed from office
* Civil and criminal courts were open to the public and were recorded and reported.
* Jury trials were introduced for more severe cases (takes it out of government control). There were now prosecutors and defenders and the juries’ votes were kept secret.
* Justices of the Peace (JPs) were established. Magistrates elected by the council who dealt with small cases.
* Offences only concerning peasants were reviewed in separate village courts with a judge from the peasantry.
35
what were the advantages of the judicial reforms
• Russians had access to a fairer trial and a better access to justice (e.g. through JPs). The defendant had more protection since the proceedings were public and less likely to be susceptible to corruption.
• JPs’ courts worked quickly and didn’t cost anything to those appearing in them. Respected as they protected the small man.
• During the 1860s and 70s an independent profession came into being, fulfilling the jobs of prosecutors and defenders. Many became advocates for reform, some later became parliamentarians and some revolutionaries.
• Challenged the authority of autocracy
o Independent courts and judges meant an independent authority, introduced the idea of the rule of law.
o Courtrooms were the only place of genuine free speech in Russia so lawyers and defendants often challenged the government and spoke out against the regime there.
o The new juries were also independent and would acquit people who the regime would see locked away for a long period.
36
what were the limitations of the judicial reforms
* The separate court of peasants meant that they were largely outside of the mainstream judicial system (emphasised their class)
* Some courts (like Church and military ones) remained outside of the system.
* The bureaucracy did still intervene so trial by jury was not always guaranteed.
* The reforms impacted the larger cities more.
37
what was Russias economic situation before the economic reforms
- Russia needed to catch up with the west
- mainly affected by serfdom- prevented Russia from industrialising since it prevented the movement of workers to factories
38
what is feudalism
- Government: autocracy
- Means of production: land, land ownership gives power
- Social organisation: aristocracy is the dominant group controlling the mass of the population- serfs- owned by the landowners
- Revolutionary change: the revolutionary class is the middle class (merchants, traders, manufactures). As this group becomes wealthier, it begins to break down the rules of feudal society which hinder its development
39
what is the Bourgeois- democratic revolution
Middle classes become larger and more powerful due to growth of trade and industry. Eventually they wanted to reshape society and government to suit their interests e.g. they wanted to have a say in how the country is run rather than the autocratic government.
40
what is capitalism
```
Government: parliamentary democracy with civil rights, elections, freedom of the press but largely run by the middle classes
Means of production: industrial premises, factories, capital goods like machinery, banks owned by capitalists. Land becomes less important as industry and trade create a greater share of national wealth.
Social organisation: middle classes or bourgeoise are the dominant or ruling class although the aristocracy may still hold on some positions of power and prestige. The mass of the population moves from being peasants to being industrial workers- the proletariat, who are forced to work long hours in poor conditions for little reward.
Revolutionary change: as capitalism grows so does the proletariat, since more workers are needed to work in factories and commercial premises. A small bourgeoise (middle class) gets increasingly wealthy while the proletariat (working class) remains poor. Gradually the proletariat develops a class consciousness and realises that it is being oppressed as a class
```
41
what is the socialist revolution
The proletariat moves from class consciousness to a revolutionary consciousness aided by revolutionary leaders (often from the middle classes). They now form the great bulk of the population while the bourgeoise are a tiny minority. They rise up and seize power, ousting their class enemies- the bourgeoise. The socialist revolution starts in a highly industrialised country.
42
what is socialism
Government: workers control the state. At first, government is exercised through the dictatorship of the proletariat, a period of strict control necessary to deal with counter-revolution and to root out non-socialist attitudes.
Means of production: factories, machines etc., as in the capitalist period but not owned by individuals. They are owned collectively by everybody.
Social organisation: everybody is equal, the class system is brought to an end. Wealth and goods produced by industry are shared out fairly. Everybody has an equal entitlement to good housing and decent standards of living.
43
what is communism
Government: there is no state, just people who are interested in managing the day-to-day business of keeping society going.
Social organisation: everyone is equal. There is an abundance of goods produced by machinery rather than by workers’ labour, so everyone has much more leisure time. People work on the principle, ‘from each, according to their ability, to each according to their needs’- they take out what they need from a central pool and contribute to society in whatever way they can (Marx’s view of communist society is not very clear.)
44
what is the order of political idealism
- feudalism
- Bourgeois- democratic revolution
- capitalism
- socialist revolution
- socialism
- communism
45
when did Alexander III die
1st November 1894
46
when did Alexander II die
13th March 1881
47
when did Nicholas II die
17th July 1918
48
how did Alexander II die
assassination by the People's Will
49
who were the intelligentsia
they were the better educated and more enlightened section of Russian society (only a very small proportion)
this included lawyers and university lectures who were usually from a liberal background
50
what did the intelligentsia believe should be done in Russia
Russia should start again so that a new society could be born
51
what influenced the intelligentsia
Nihilist movement- believed in reason and science and were hostile not only to the Tsar but to the Russian Orthodox Church
52
what were the aims of the populists
* They believed in a agrarian socialism based around the peasant commune
* They thought that socialism would be a good way around industrialisation and capitalism.
53
whats the other name of the populists
Narodniks
54
how did the Narodniks gain support in 1874-1877
* “Go to the people” (narod) to spread the message
* This was risky as a lot of them were wealthy individuals who decided to go and live with the peasants which led to many of them breaking up with their families.
* Dressed up like the peasants to fit in
* Some people learnt trades to fit in e.g. joinery and teaching
55
why were the narodniks unsuccessful
* People didn’t trust them and found them patronising as they were wealthy strangers trying to convince them that socialism was a good idea which village elders, priests and police weren’t keen on.
* Uneducated peasants made it difficult to sell the idea
* Started becoming violent which led to them killing members of the Tsar (terrorism)
* This led to several hundred narodniks got arrested and imprisoned for their good intensions. There were 2 large trials held in 1877- the ‘Trial of the 50’ and the ‘Trail of the 193’. Some got large sentences, but many got light sentences or were acquitted.
56
who were the Black Partition
Led by George Plekhanov with Vera Zasulich and others who wanted to promote revolution by peaceful agitation
57
who were the People's Will
* Determined to use terrorist violence to achieve the revolutionary aims
* Their main aim was the kill Alexander II
* They assassinated him on the 13th March 1881.
58
what was the People's Will moto
"go to the people"
59
how did the populists try and gain support
Attempt 1 – 1874
• Sergei Nechyev- exiled radical peasant extract
• Inspired student revolutionary group – ‘The Chaikov
• sky circle
• Wrote the pamphlets and smuggled in banned books
• 1874 Pyotr Lavrov- 2000 intelligentsia and nobility go to the people
• Aim to win peasantry to their socialist ideas
• FAILED – people thought it was patronising (paternalism)
Attempt 2- 1877
• more radical and better organised attempt
• work within the peasant communes
• stir up peasant resistance to the Tsar
• carried out some high level assassinations (senior people within the Tsar
• FAILED
60
who was Karl Marx
- determinist- thought that there were certain forces that already had our lives planned out
- German Philospher who spent a lot of time in London researching
61
Despite Karl Marx were supporters of marxists ideas
Lenin
Trotsky
Zasulich
62
what was the marxist ideology
```
wanted to be a socialist country through the development of industry and the growth of the working class
developed groups who believed in action and started strikes in factories
```
63
who was Chernyshevsky
- part of the intelligentsia
- wrote a radical journal "The Contemporary"
- placed his faith in the peasants as the revolutionary class
64
what is "Young Russia"
1862- a group of students published a manifesto "young Russia", in which they argued that revolution was the only way forward
65
who was Dmitry Karakozov
- 4th April 1866- he tried to kill Alexander II
- he tried shooting him outside Saint Petersburg's Summer Garden but missed
- "unheard of act"- changed the course of Russian history and started revolutionary politcal violence (terrorism)
- this was shocking as he was a student and of noble blood highlighting how all class were opposed to Alexander II reforms
66
who influenced Alexander III
Pobedonostev- firm believer of autocracy
- he was Alexander III tutor from a young age and friend in older age
- meant he was able to influence him from a young age
67
where was Alexander II assassinated
St Petersburg
68
what happened on the morning of Alexander II death
signed the Loris Melikov constitution- establishes a duma parliament
Alexander III then rejected it
69
what did Alexander III do
counter reforms
70
Alexander III counter reforms-local government
- 1890- reduced the independence of the zemstva
- provincial governors could veto and amend their decisions
- central government interfered with or stifled local initiatives
- system to select members of zemstva was changed to favour landowners and peasant representation reduced
- nevertheless zemstva continued improvements eg building roads and allivated the effects of famine in 1891-92
71
what was the impact on Russia- local government
meant there was less representation for the working class as fewer peasants were selected. This meant that it tended to favour the landowners and upper class
72
Alexander III counter reforms- education
university courses for women were closed
- the church was given more control over primary education
- fees for secondary schools were raised to exclude students from lower ranks
- 1884 strict controls on universities- reducing student freedoms
- university staff were selected by Minister of Education
73
what was the impact on Russia - education
fewer people went to uni (including women) meaning they less likely to modernise as they needed higher educated people to move away from agriculture
74
Alexander III counter reforms- judicial
- Alexander III wanted to regain power over the judicial system
- this was difficult so reduced the scope of offences
- judges lost their security of tenure and many were appointed directly from the Ministry of Justice
- Justices of Peace were abolished
75
what was the impact on Russia - judicial
there was a huge increase in the centralization of power. The central ministers and through them local government officials gained much more support
76
Alexander III counter reforms- law on exceptional measures
1881 that state security was passed,giving the government emergency powers to:
- prohibit gatherings of more than 12 people
- prosecute any individual for political crimes
- introduce emergency police rule where public order was threatened
- set up special courts outside the legal system
- close schools, unis and newspapers
77
what was the impact on Russia- law on exceptional measures
the Minster of the Interior could do more or less what they wanted,as they didn't have to go through court
78
Alexander III counter reforms- Okhrana (policing)
- 1881- Okhrana was established (secret police)
- By 1882 allowed police to declare any citizen subject to surveillance
- censorship was tightened further -publications which criticize the regime could be suspended and editors banned from publishing again
79
what was the impact on Russia- Okhrana
prevented people from opposing the Tsar, emphasizing autocracy
80
Alexander III counter reforms- Loris- Melikov constitution
- the Loris Melikov constitution contained a program of reforms including tax reform, local governing reform and a passport system reform which Loris Melikov presented Alexander II in April 1880
- Alexander II signed on the morning of his assassination
81
what was the impact on Russia- Loris Melikov constitution
- led to Alexander II death
- Alexander III then reversed all of Alexander II reforms
- led to a very autocratic government
82
Alexander III counter reforms- revolutionary groups
- Alexander III cracked down on revolutionary groups
- set up Okhrana
- censorship laws were tightened making it difficult to express a dissident opinion
- revolutionary groups started forming habing socialist views but most were sort lived
- People's Will weakened
83
what was the impact on Russia - revolutionary group
fear of revolution meant that there were extreme measures to prevent opposition to autocracy.
84
Alexander III counter reforms- censorship
censorship reforms were reversed
85
what was the impact on Russia- censorship
led to people having false hope as they were given freedom which was then taken away from them
86
Alexander III counter reforms- minority groups (Poles)
- Poles: never wanted Tsarist rule
- 1863- Polish rebels attacked what they saw as pro-Russian government
- led to 100's of poles being exiled to Siberia
- Russification was intensified
- polish language was prohibited in schools
- prevented from having top jobs
- one of the first groups to take opportunity in 1905 revolution
87
what was the impact on Russia- minority groups
this led to a lot of negativity towards the Tsars as minority groups weren't being treated the same as Russians , despite being an important part of society
88
Alexander III counter reforms- minority groups (Ukrainians)
- Ukrainians
- 2nd largest ethnic group in the empire
- they tried to introduce the language but the Tsar denied it as they thought it would introduce nationalism
89
Alexander III counter reforms- minority groups (Jews)
- Jews- faced a wave of antisemitism as been involved in revolutionary groups in 1870's seen as 'Christ killers', -not allowed to own property and land
- can't work in military, legal or medical professions
