Russia 1.3 Flashcards
When and what was the The Decree on the Press?
November 1917 - gave the government emergency powers to close any newspapers which supported a counter-revolution.
When was the Revolutionary Tribunal of the Press established and what was its purpose?
Established in January 1918 - power to censor the press: journalists and editors who committed ‘crimes against the people’ could be punished by the Cheka - empowered to impose fines, prison sentences and exiles.
All editors and journals were part of which Union? Who did they work for and who were they expected to be a part of?
The Union of Soviet Journalists
The Government
Party members
What was the purpose of the establishment of the All-Russia Telegraph Agency (ROSTA)?
Solely responsible for distributing news.
By 1921 how many newspapers and printing presses had been closed down?
By 1921, 2000 newspapers and 575 printing presses had been closed down.
Name three newspapers and their print circulation by 1983 (for just two of them)
Pravda (Truth) - 10.7 million
Izvestiya (News)
Trud (Labour) - 13.5 million
What were the purpose of newspapers and how did the Communists achieve this purpose?
Their purpose was to act as an instrument of propaganda thus were widely available and cheap to buy.
How was the assassination attempt on Lenin used in relation to his cult?
Following an assassination attempt, Lenin was described in essentially religious terms - his survival was described as ‘miraculous’, and his emphasis on his willingness to sacrifice his life for his people made Lenin into a modern day Christ.
What was a common title of Lenin?
‘Leader of the Revolutionary Proletariat’
During 1919 and 1920 what was the new style of Lenin that emerged?
During 1919 and 1920, a new style of Lenin emerged - depicting him as a man of the people who refused luxury, a visionary and a man of great power. From 1919, he was also presented wearing a cap - implied he was approachable and down to earth.
Despite Lenin being uncomfortable with his cult, what made him tolerate it?
He understood its importance as it gave the revolution a face, someone the Russian people could identify with and support.
Identify two aspects of Lenin’s cult immediately after his death.
The embalming of Lenin’s body for display in the mausoleum in the Red Square was the most striking example of the use of Lenin as a focus for political purposes.
Petrograd was also renamed Leningrad in 1924 to honour him.
How did future Soviet leaders use the cult of Lenin?
Throughout the history of the Soviet Union, the cult of Lenin was used to support their claim to be the legitimate heirs of the Soviet Union.
What organisation did Dzerzhinsky introduce in 1922 and what was its purpose?
Glavlit, a new organisation - oversaw a more systematic censorship regime:
The GPU was put in charge of policing every publication available in the Soviet Union.
New professional censors employed - all articles for publication required approval from Glavlit.
All books investigated for anti - Communist bias and a list of banned books compiled by the GPU - ‘book Gulags’.
How did Stalin used censorship against his previous opponents in the mid 1930s?
the works of Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky and other leading revolutionaries from the 1920s had to be purged from Soviet libraries. Lenin’s own works were ‘edited’ to remove complimentary statements about Stalin’s opponents. Even Stalin’s works were edited to remove any indication he had once been close to those he purged.
Soviet history was rewritten, to remove the contributions of Stalin’s opponents and emphasise Stalin’s role in the revolution.
From 1928 what did Glavlit control and what did this mean for censorship?
From 1928, Glavlit controlled access to economic data and restrictions were placed on all kinds of ‘bad news’. The Soviet media were forbidden from publishing stories about natural disasters, industrial accidents or even bad weather to present the Soviet Union as a utopia.
What became ‘newsworthy’ instead?
Instead the achievements of socialism were highlighted. Favoured topics included: exceeding targets of the latest Plan, successful expeditions to the Arctic and Northern Russia insearch of gold and oil - triumph of technology over nature. Stalin given credit for all achievements.
What was the Kyshtym disaster?
Sept 1957 - nuclear disaster, 200 fatalities and 240,000 people being exposed to dangerous radiation levels. People only became suspicious when map readers noticed small communities had disappeared between 1957 and 1961.
Soviet authorities took 2 years to evacuate all unsafe areas.
How did the government use consumer magazines to promote propaganda?
Many were aimed at specific groups of people and were censored heavily. They added propaganda praising the government on the front pages of extremely popular magazines.
Sovetskii Sport (succeeded Red Sport (1924) in 1946) - hugely popular magazine - gained respect for accuracy and honesty even if it praised the government on the front page.
What did the encouragement of publishing the letters of readers expose?
Give an example and Khrushchev’s subsequent response.
The long-term problems with Soviet society.
Letters to women’s magazines, like ‘the Woman Worker’, complained about male alcoholism, inequalities and domestic violence. Instead of suppressing the letters, Khrushchev’s media responded with a campaign against worthless men - they focused on their lack of devotion to Communism and male hypocrisy.
How was the October Revolution broadcasted?
Through radio in morse code.
How did the government use radios, despite their cost?
Loudspeakers installed in public places, factories and clubs. Group listening resulted in a collective response - ensured everyone got the intended message.
Why was radio useful?
Enabled government to get message across to those illiterate - 65% of the population.
Why was radio useful during the German Invasion?
Speed at which government could convey messages proved invaluable during German Invasion (1941) - German troops 50 miles from Moscow - Stalin gave radio speech live from Red Square to commemorate October Revolution - highly effective in reassuring Soviet population.
How did the government try to restrict access to foreign networks? We’re they successful?
Government tried to restrict access to foreign networks by mass-producing cheap radios with a limited range but also had to rely on jamming foreign radio stations and threatening to arrest those who listened to stations such as Voice of America or the BBC. Threats rarely succeeded but limits on amount of information received by Soviet public was important in restricting the level of public debate.
In 1950 how many television sets were they and how many were there by 1958?
10,000 sets to 3 million.
What did Soviet cinema under Khrushchev focus on?
Soviet cinema under Khrushchev was more focused on traditional themes such as Soviet victory in the Great Patriotic War. Rather than focusing on the contributions of Stalin, they focused on the role of ordinary people.
What was the first television news show and when was it broadcast? What did it often feature?
1961 - Estafeta Noveseo (News and Mail). The programme contained regular features about model workers on farms and in factories as a part of Khrushchev’s drive to increase labour productivity.
Under Brezhnev what did Soviet film and TV focus more on? What did this result in?
Under Brezhnev, film still had traditional elements but there were more films dealing with working people and their daily lives. Significantly Soviet filmmakers tended to focus on fashionable citizens living in luxurious apartments - stoked public desire for consumer goods and fashion.
How was television coverage the downfall of Brezhnev? What was his last television appearance?
Soviet officials also ensured his speeches were transmitted in full and he was the centre of a great deal of domestic media coverage. By the late 1970s this backfired - the media showed a man who was clearly physically and mentally incapacitated, who struggled to make speeches and had difficulty walking. Television coverage of him continued until the last week of his life and his last television appearance was him struggling to walk up the steps of the Lenin Mausoleum.
Was Brezhnev successful in policing all media? How did this affect the state?
Under Brezhenev, Soviet leaders also lost control of the print media. The KGB continued to police political publications but Westen magazines became increasingly available in Soviet cities as part of the black market. Whilst not political they undermined the Soviet system by showing the quality and luxury of Western life.
What conclusions can be drawn from Soviet media?
For many years Soviet media control was extremely effective - turned Lenin into the first hero of the revolution and a man that people could identify with.
Under Stalin, propaganda focused on Stalin as Vozhd (great Russian leader) and his heroic nation of perfect workers.
Consumerism led to increased magazine circulation, the availability of television sets and even a black market in Western magazines. All of these changed the nature of media.
Under Khrushchev there was an increasing emphasis on ordinary people.
Television however exposed Brezhnev’s frailty and Western magazines exposed inequalities between the Soviet Union and the West - both undermined the Soviet system. As technology advanced it became more difficult to restrict the population’s access to information.
What was the purpose of Stalin’s cult?
Served a specific political purpose - it emphasised Stalin’s legitimacy to take over leadership of the Party. Equally, the cult created a figure that Soviet citizens could trust, respect and even worship.
What was the myth of Two leaders?
This myth led Soviet people to believe that the October Revolution, victory in the Civil War and the foundation of the Soviet Union had been masterminded by a duumvirate consisting of Lenin and Stalin.
What did the myth require and how did Stalin achieve this?
The myth required Soviet history to be extensively rewritten, placing Stalin at the centre and removing Trotsky and other revolutionaries from the story. Achieved by:
The publication in 1938 of two histories of the Communist Party, both edited by Stalin.
Socialist Realist paintings which were created showing Stalin working closely with Lenin.
Altering photographs - Trotsky and other former leaders were taken out of pictures with Lenin.
How did Soviet media show Stalin as Lenin’s heir?
Implied Stalin was continuing on the path created by Lenin.
Gustav Klutsis’ photomontages show a row of figures running from Marx, through Lenin to Stalin, implying that Stalin is the latest in a tradition of revolutionary leaders.
How did Stalin’s cult present him as the vozhd, who was celebrated?
Pravda praised the vozhd’s wisdom daily and Stalin’s birthday became a national celebration with parades.
How did Stalin’s cult change following the Great Patriotic War?
His role as Generalissimo or war leader, became the focus of much Soviet propaganda. Before the Great Patriotic War Stalin was presented as a revolutionary and a thinker, but as Generalissimo he was presented as a military genius who saved the nation.
Which city had its name changed to Stalingrad and when?
1925, Tsaritsyn.
What quote became widely used in Party membership?
‘Stalin is the Lenin of today’
Who made a career out of playing Stalin?
Actor Mikhail Gilovani
Evidence for even those not liking him having respect for him.
Prisoners in the Gulag wept when they heard of Stalin’s death.
Despite Khrushchev criticising Stalin’s cult, how many cults did he put forward and of who?
Lenin and himself.
How did Khrushchev revive the cult of Lenin?
In the 1930s Lenin’s death was stressed, in the 1950s his cult was based on the slogan ‘Lenin Lives!’ - approachable, humane and a family man. Khrushchev reminded the people that the government was founded on Lenin’s revolution rather than Stalin’s terror.
How did Khrushchev use Soviet propaganda to create his own cult?
A disciple of Lenin who was completing the journey that Lenin had started.
Responsible for new successes - the Space programme and Virgin Lands harvests.
A hero of the Great Patriotic War.
The great reformer who was perfecting the Soviet system
A respected statesman who negotiated with the US President as an equal.
How was his cult his downfall?
By associating himself so strongly with the success of the Virgin Lands Scheme, he was seriously damaged by its failure. His embarrassing foreign policy and his failure to deliver on his optimistic promises about out-producing the USA led to a collapse in confidence in Khrushchev’s fitness to govern.
What was Brezhnev’s cult in relation to Stalin?
A shadow of Stalin’s cult.
Why did Brezhnev adopt a cult of personality?
For pragmatic reasons. By 1964, a cult of the leader was well established as an essential feature of Soviet politics.
And to consolidate his position.
What did Brezhnev’s cult present him as?
A great Leninist - Brezhnev had not known Lenin, but he claimed to be continuing the work started by Lenin, particularly working for world peace.
A military hero - official publications stressed his military prowess in the Great Patriotic War. He was promoted to the position of Marshal of the Red Army and received 60 medals,
A true man of the people - biographies told of his humble origins and how he worked as an engineer in the steel industry.
How was his cult useful to him?
Presented Brezhnev as a popular leader - one reason was his reluctance to bring about change but the cult gave him symbols of power without having to exercise it.
Why was Brezhnev’s cult counterproductive?
Brezhnev was mocked for his claims to greatness. Veterans of the Great Patriotic War resented the inflation of Brezhnev’s role in the war. The lavish lifestyle of Brezhnev’s family undercut the claims that he was a man of the people.
How many medals did he award himself and what was a common Soviet joke as a result of it?
Brezhnev awarded himself at least 100 medals including the Lenin Prize for Literature for his memoirs which exaggerated his role in the Great Patriotic War. Soviet joke, he was having his chest expanded to accommodate more medals.
Why did Brezhnev’s cult take on a more practical element according to Medvedev?
His cult took on a more practical element after 1975 when his health deteriorated. Historian Medvedev claimed for the last 6 years of his life he was clinically dead - leader unable to function but cult provided appearance of leadership to Soviet population.
What did Marxism say about religion?
‘Opium of the masses’
Why was Lenin critical of the Russian Orthodox Church and to organised religion in general?
The Russian Orthodox Church was an extremely rich institution and an essential ally of the Tsar.
Religion stood for values that were sometimes opposed to Communist values.
Religious groups were independent of the government and therefore could organise opposition.
Which two main early decrees attacked the Church?
October 1917 Decree of Land - gave peasants the right to seize land belonging to the Church.
January 1918 Decree Concerning Separation of Church and State, and of School and Church- Church lost privileged position in society - Church land, buildings and property were nationalised, its publications outlawed and religious education was banned in schools
What did the 1922 Soviet Constitution guarantee and why couldn’t Soviet courts uphold this?
Freedom of conscience for all Soviet people.
Soviet courts lacked the power to force the government to obey the law.
By when was Patriarch Tikhon under house arrest, and who was he?
The head of the Orthodox Church - by the end of 1918.
What happened to Orthodox priests in Moscow in January 1918?
Orthodox priests in Moscow were massacred in January following a Church decree excommunicating the Bolsheviks.
What did the Politburo issue to the Cheka in November 1918?
Politburo issued a secret order to the Cheka sanctioning the mass execution of priests.
How were priests attacked during the Civil War and Red Terror and what were the consequences?
Priests were deprived of the vote, denied rations during the civil war and suffered as victims of the Red Terror of 1921-22. By 1923, 28 bishops and over 1,000 priests had been killed.
What was the government’s early policy towards Islam?
Initially, Communist forces used the Decree Concerning Separation of Church and State to justify seizing the property of waqfs (Islamic foundations and charities). Policy was quickly reversed - waqfs continued to fund schools in Muslim areas and Communist leaders encouraged local Muslims to join the Party.
Why was the government less harsh on Muslims?
Islam had no official link to Tsarism and Islam was more ingrained into society and the way of life.
Why was the Living Church established?
The Living Church was established to be a reformed version of the old Orthodox Church in which ordinary people had power.
How did Archbishop Vedenskii challenge the Church? What was the government’s response?
the leader of the Living Church, Archbishop Vedenskii, was not prepared to support the Communists. In 1923 he publicly debated science and religion with Lunacharsky, gaining widespread support that science could not disprove the existence of God - public debates proved counterproductive and in 1925 the Central Committee stopped public debates within the Church.
Was their policy of splitting the Church by backing the Living Church successful?
It was successful but did not diminish Church growth which continued throughout the 1920s.
When was the League of Militant Goodness established and what was its purpose?
- A propaganda campaign against religion. It launched events to disprove the existence of God - peasants taken for plane rides to show them heaven did not exist in the sky.
By the end of 1930 how many village churches were no longer operating or destroyed?
4/5
Surveys of peasantry in the mid 1920s revealed what percentage were still active Christians?
55%
For what two main reasons did the Communists object to Islam?
Claimed that Islam encouraged ‘crimes based on custom’ (particularly those on women’s rights) and that Islamic organisations had the loyalty of many people in the Caucasus and Central Asia.
How did the Soviets weaken Islam?
Closed mosques, turning them into sports clubs or storage units. 25,000 in 1917 to just 500 in the 1970s.
Discouraged pilgrimages and attacked Islamic shrines.
Started campaigns against women wearing the chador, a traditional dress which sometimes included a veil.
Opened anti-Islamic museums in the midst of recognised holy places.
Polygamy prohibited on the grounds of its subjection of women.
Ramadan fasting was condemned as interfering with work discipline.
How did the Soviets use International Women’s Day in 1927 to attack Muslims?
Campaign against veiling of women was launched on International Women’s Day 1927 when huge gatherings of women took part in a ceremony where they cast off their veils and threw them onto a bonfire.
What did these measures result in?
series of violent revolts in 1928-29, during which Chechens were particularly active. The unrest was crushed through the use of the Russian armed forces. Many retained private beliefs in private whilst others joined underground brotherhoods, tariqat, to continue the fight for Islamic rights.
How was Stalin different to Lenin when dealing with religion?
He was pragmatic when dealing with religion.
Why did Stalin order the closure of many churches and after the Great Terror in 1939 how many bishops were left?
During the collectivisation drive, Stalin ordered the closure of many churches in the country largely because they were aiding resistance to his policies. And after the Great Terror, in 1939, only 12 of 163 bishops were still at liberty.
How did Stalin attack Islamic tariqats and was he successful?
Attacked Jadids and Sufi groups who were dedicated to ‘saving Islam from Marxist pollution’. By the end of 1936, Sufi groups had been destroyed. Nonetheless, in spite of the claims of Soviet propaganda, Islam survived and Sufi groups, often led by women, kept the traditions alive and growing, particularly in Kazakhstan.
What was Stalin’s outlook towards the Church during the Great Patriotic War and why?
During the Great Patriotic War Stalin made a pragmatic alliance with the Church. One of his strategies for winning the war was to appeal to the patriotism of the Russian people to inspire them to fight.
In exchange what did the Metropolitan Sergei do for Stalin?
He urged Christians to fight for the motherland, proclaiming Stalin ‘God’s chosen leader’.
What concessions were given to the Orthodox Church during this period?
Anti-religious propaganda ceased. Communist publications, e.g. Bezbozhnik ‘The Godless’, were officially closed.
Stalin promised to end censorship of religious magazines following the war.
Stalin promised that closed churches would re-open
How many churches re-opened in 1945?
414
Between 1946 and 1948 what was the change in the Priesthood of the Orthodox Church?
9254 to 11,827
What was Khrushchev’s stance on religion?
Khrushchev was fervently anti-religious and pursued a programme of active repression - saw it as part of his mission to revive the anti-religious campaign of the 1920s.
What did Khrushchev’s 1958 anti-religion campaign include?
Churchers re-opened during the Great Patriotic War were closed.
Anti-religious propaganda was reintroduced.
Anti-religious magazines were reintroduced, e.g. Science and Religion was published regularly from 1960.
How did Khrushchev use the Soviet space programme to attack religion?
Yuri Gagrarin famously commented that having travelled up to the heavens he had found no God.
Why did Khrushchev’s campaigns particularly target female believers?
Government figures showed that two-thirds of Orthodox church goers and over 80% of Protestant Christians were women. Khrushchev was also concerned that women were passing on religious beliefs to their children.
How many churches were there in 1959, 1960 and 1965?
1959 - 22,000
1960 - 13,008
1965 - 7,873
