rural land degredation

Question 1

What is rural land degradation

Answer 1

Rural land degradation basically means soil deterioration.
Soil is said to be deteriorated if it cannot support the vegetation cover it previously supported.
Degradation occurs when the soil is exposed and is worn away by weathering.
If this happens faster than the soil is being formed, then the soil will begin to degrade.

Question 2

Rain erosion processes

Answer 2

Rain splash The impact of raindrops on the soil can dislodge and move soil either outwards (flat land) or downhill (on a slope).
Sheet Erosion The removal of the surface topsoilby heavy rain gently flowing down a slope.
Rill Erosion The creation, by heavy rain, of small (usually temporary)water channels. Over time these can lead to larger gullies.
Leaching - When heavy rain washes out minerals from the topsoil.

Question 3

wind erosion processes

Answer 3

Suspension Very fine material (<0.15mm) is picked up and carried large distances by strong winds.This can cause a dramatic looking dust storm. Fine and coarse grained sand particles are lifted first vertically, then they are bounced in a “leap-frogging” motion over each other, but close to the ground.
Surface Creep A very slow movement over ground,usually large particles of soil or stones (dislodged due to moving sand grains ^), rolling and sliding

Question 4

Physical Causes of RLD in the Sahel

Answer 4

1. Variability and intensity of rainfall: Total annual rainfall is low in the Sahel, ranging from 200mm in the N. Sahel, to 500mm in the S. Sahel (there are distinct wet & dry seasons). The hot temperature also means there is a consistent high rate of evaporation which leaves the soil dry and open to wind erosion.
   drought periods are occurring in the Sahel with greater frequency than previous years.
   DROUGHT = Water table falls & soil dried out = plant roots can no longer access water plants die lack of soil veg. leaves soil exposed to wind and rain erosion RLD!!
   The variability in rainfall can also cause a human problem: many “wetter” years in a row can give locals false hope about the land’s capability. They often then plant more crops following some success, but when the climate dries again the crops fail again, causing more damage.
2. Vegetation Cover Due to the variability of rainfall across the Sahel, the soils and natural vegetation also vary. In southern regions where rainfall is more reliable, soils are well developed, fertile and support a greater variety of vegetation.
   Moving North, vegetation becomes less dense leaving the soils bare and therefore more susceptible to erosion by wind and water

Question 5

Human causes of rld in the Sahel

Answer 5

Over population 
Over cultivation 
Over grazing 
growth of cash crops
Poor irrigation methods 
Deforestation 
Urbanisation

Question 6

Over population

Answer 6

improvements in medical care resulting in reduced death rates, coupled with high birth rates, mean that population growth is occurring rapidly in the Sahel.

With more mouths to feed, greater pressure is placed on farmers to produce more food leading to over-cultivation.

Question 7

Over cultivation

Answer 7

Due to increases in population arable farmers are forced to increase yields from their land. As a result, the fallow periods (when land is left un-seeded) allowed for the soil to regenerate is reduced and the soil becomes depleted of its nutrients.

With rainfall in the region increasingly unreliable, crops often fail and the soil is degraded (exposed to wind and rain!).

Question 8

Over grazing

Answer 8

the rise in population has brought about an increase in the size and number of herds grazing in the Sahel, increasing pressure on grazing areas (e.g. wells and lakes where animals drink).

The sheer volume of grazers results in vegetation being stripped down to the roots, leaving soil exposed to wind and rain.In addition, compaction of the soil by trampling reduces the infiltration capacity increasing runoff resulting in erosion of the soil by water.

Question 9

growth of cash crops

Answer 9

many farmers moved away from the traditional subsistence farming (growing enough for themselves) and began growing cash crops (crops to sell) such as cotton and rice.

This resulted in monoculture.
Monoculture is the cultivation of the same crop on the same fields year after year which depletes the soil of vital nutrients. As a result the soil structure is weakened, crop yields are reduced and the soil is degraded.

Question 10

Poor irrigation methods

Answer 10

In a dry climate, crops must be irrigated. In Niger water was pumped out of the River Niger to irrigate fields of rice.

The pumped water floods the rice paddies but the excess water then evaporates in the heat of the day leaving behind large concentrations of salt in the soil which poisons crops

Question 11

Deforestation

Answer 11

Rising populations place an ever increasing burden on woodland which is the main source of fuel in the Sahel. Removing the trees removes the binding effect tree roots have on the soil, the protection of soil by vegetation and the ability of the trees to reduce wind speeds; therefore without the trees the soil is left exposed and liable to be eroded.

In addition, the shortage of firewood for fuel means that more families are resorting to animal dung for their domestic energy. The dung would normally be used as a natural fertiliser for the soil.
As a result, the soil is further degraded as it is deprived of the nutrients. In the long term crop yields will be affected.

Question 12

Urbanisation

Answer 12

In many parts of the Sahel there has been a rapid growth in urban populations as people move from rural areas in search of jobs, a higher standard of living and better education opportunities.

Urbanisation has led to an increased demand for firewood. -
Large areas of forest are cut down and the wood is often turned into charcoal for ease of transport. This process is extremely inefficient and half of the energy of the wood is lost during conversion. The growth and development of small settlements in rural areas has also increased, as schools have been set up, as in Korr in Northern Kenya.

Question 13

CONSEQUENCES of RLD in the Sahel

Answer 13

Environmental consequences (physical changes to landscape)
Economic Consequences (financial implications for countries involved)
Social Consequences (changes for the people involved)

Question 14

Environmental Consequences

Answer 14

Rills and gullies
Loss of topsoil
Environmental Consequences

Question 15

Rills and gullies

Answer 15

exposed soil and intense tropical downpours results in overland flow removing topsoil and cutting into the land, forming rills and gullies.

This is also a problem where soil has been compacted by the trampling of animals.

Question 16

Loss of topsoil

Answer 16

strong winds blow away the topsoil from land that has become degraded.

Topsoil is the most fertile part of any soil.Losing this means crops are unlikely to grow well leading to further low crop yields and crop failure.

Question 17

Environmental Consequences

Answer 17

cash crops often require more water to grow which has led to an increase in flood irrigation, causing salts to accumulate in the soil.

If these soils are not drained properly, salts will build up in the root zones of crops. This can kill the crops and contaminate the soil.
To reverse the process and rejuvenate the soil is very expensive

Question 18

Economic Consequences

Answer 18

Reduced income from pastoral farming and the farming of cash crops

Increased rural poverty as farming is a traditional way of life in the Sahel

A decrease in the available fuel (normally wood), resulting in people buying alternative fuels (e.g. oil and kerosene which is more expensive!).

In areas where the effects of RLD have been most serious, people have come to rely on food and other aid sent from other countries (e.g., following the Band Aid campaign of 1983). This can lead to an over dependency on external help and can even have a negative impact on people’s psychological health who cannot provide for themselves/need aid.

Question 19

Social Consequence

Answer 19

Malnutrition and starvation
Migration
Health and education

Question 20

Malnutrition and starvation

Answer 20

the failure of crops year after year leads to starvation and death e.g. one million people died in the famine in Ethiopia in the mid-1980s.

Malnutrition may also be attributed to the reduction in the range of crops grown in order to concentrate on cash crops.

Question 21

Migration

Answer 21

the degradation of farmland and the increased pressures created by rising populations have forced people to migrate away from their home areas in the Sahel.

Additionally, the younger men move away in search of an alternative income, leaving the women, children and the elderly at home.
This has led to a demographically imbalanced rural population.

Question 22

Health and education

Answer 22

in many Saheian countries (countries within the Sahel) such as Burkina Faso, education and health care must be paid for and therefore the loss of income brought about by the failure of crops and herds may mean that individuals have their schooling interrupted leading to low literacy rates, and individuals go untreated when ill leading to higher death rates.

Question 23

Extra social consequences

Answer 23

Governments and charities may have to set up refugee campsdue to mass migration away from the Sahel.
The conditions in the camps are likely to be appalling (overcrowded, insufficient health / education facilities).

Increased social tensions(people are unhealthy, hungry and unhappy)

A loss of traditional knowledge and skills in the area

People will die, communities become broken up and a way of life is lost.

Question 24

Model answer - consequences of rural land degradation on environment and people 10m

Answer 24

The Semi-Arid area I have studied is the Sahel in Africa where there are many consequences of RLD.

The variable rainfall pattern within the Sahel, which often results in torrential downpours during the wet season, causes increased overland flow.
This results in the nutrient rich topsoils being washed away, aiding desertification. (1)
This process has led to the Sahara expanding by 100km in just 17 years in Sudan (1).

Over cropping and overgrazing leave the soil bare and exposed to wind and water erosion. Torrential rain in the Sahel can then lead to the formation of Rills & Gullies (deep ridges in the soil). These rills and gullies cannot be ploughed out and so are permanent features. This leads to less land being available for arable farming which is the main way of life in the Sahel (1)

The lack of good quality soil has led to lower crop yields and increased crop failures. In the worst affected areas, such as in Ethiopia, this has led to starvation and famines(1)
(one million people died in the Ethiopian famine in the mid 1980’s). (1)

A poor quality of life, caused by poor quality soils and the resulting starvation, has forced many Saheians who lead traditional agricultural lifestyles to migrate to neighbouring countries in search of other employment, food and shelter. This has caused a rise in the number of Shanty Towns (1).

Some people are also forced to flee their homes in the Sahel as they are unable to access food and water. These people become refugees and move to neighbouring countries. In some cases, this can cause conflicts with the resident populations (1).

In some cases, it is solely the young men in families who migrate to new shanty towns or cities to find work. This leaves behind the women, children and elderly, causing a massive demographic imbalance in affected rural Saheian countries (1).

Starvation and lack of resources in the Sahel caused by poor quality soils and poor crop yields can also mean that certain populations become susceptible to diseases like Kwashiorkor disease (1).
Kwashiorkor disease causes swelling of the gut due to malnutrition) means many people are then unable to work, so cannot afford food (1).

In many Saheian countries such as Burkina Faso, education must be paid for, and therefore the loss of earnings brought about by crop failures (or the effects of this, e.g. disease) may mean that individuals have their schooling interrupted leading to low literacy rates (1),
e.g. in Niger the literacy rate is only 19% (1).

Healthcare must also be paid for in most parts of the Sahel, again meaning that those who cannot afford it due to crop failures caused by rural land degradation go untreated when ill, resulting in a higher death rate(1)

Question 25

Solutions to RLD in the Sahel

Answer 25

The great green wall initiative 
Fanya Juu Terraces
Zai
Managing Grazing Areas
Reduced herd sizes
Education
Micro-dams (Sand Dams)

Question 26

The great green wall initiative

Answer 26

The great green wall project focuses on educating people on how to best take care of the land to ensure the impacts of RLD are reduced.
The project looks different in every partner country. For example, in some areas Makarikari grasses have been planted to help bind the soil as well as providing vegetation cover to avoid further wind erosion.
This grass can then also be used as fodder for cattle.

In only one year, more than 100 hectares of land has been won back from RLD thanks to the project. Although, currently the wall is not yet crossing the entire 11 countries involved, the project itself has ensured that each country has developed their own personalised national action plans against RLD.
So far around 15% of the wall has been planted. Senegal has now reclaimed more than 4 million hectares of land along the Great Green Wall by planting more than 27,000 hectares of indigenous trees which do not require watering.
This has seen many animal that had previously disappeared from the region return (including antelopes, hares and birds that haven’t been seen for 50 years!)

the current cost (and the anticipated cost) of the Great Green Wall has been heavily criticised. It is thought that the cost of planting trees and maintaining the land is too expensive and, frankly, out of reach for many of the countries involved (remember we are in one of the world’s poorest places!)

Question 27

Fanya Juu Terraces

Answer 27

These terraces, or channels, have been made by digging a drainage channel into agricultural land and throwing soil uphill to make a ridge to increase infiltration.  
This is a very low technology approach which has been particularly successful.  However, maintaining the terraces is very labour intensive (rain will move the soil downhill).  
In Makanya(Tanzania), Maize is grown in between the trenches and has seen an increase in crop yields (from 1.5 tonnes per hectare to 2.4 tonnes per hectare).  

Increases crop yields

Reduces need to cultivate new / more land Stabilises food production

Question 28

Zai

Answer 28

This process involves digging small hollows before the growing season to catch water and concentrate compost.
Some Zai are filled with manure which helps to attract termites.
The termites tunnel through the soil, helping to break it up, while the manure helps replenish nutrient levels in the soil.

Digging zai pits is effective as:
it produces higher yields which ensures year round plant coverage, increasing water infiltration & reducing runoff AND
although labour intensive, the work is carried out in the off-season when farmers are not as busy with other tasks, so labour time less of a constraint

Question 29

Managing Grazing Areas

Answer 29

Research and tests have shown that grasses are able to re-establish themselves very quickly given an undisturbed fallow period in which to recover (1-2 years).
Therefore if areas are fenced off from grazing animals on a rotational basis it is possible to sustain the herds without long term damage to the soil.

The main disadvantage of this method is the high cost of fencing and the management of the grazing areas, a cost which is far out of reach for many farmers in the developing countries of the Sahel.

Question 30

Reduced herd sizes

Answer 30

Reducing the number of cattle, sheep and goats and focusing on the quality rather than the quantity of the herds, decreases grazing pressure on the land.
The soil is no longer being fully stripped of its vegetation so is less susceptible to wind erosion.
It also reduces soil compaction by the hooves; overall reducing water erosion of the topsoil.

However, this is a sensitive issue as traditionally the size of a herd is often a measure of an individual’s status within the tribe and therefore herders may be resistant to change.

Question 31

Education

Answer 31

Teaching farmers about the causes and consequences of rural land degradation can help change attitudes. Education programmes where farmers who have already completed programmes designed to manage land degradation are involved in peer-to-peer teaching.

This speeds up the process of information transfer between populations and communities and, given the fact that the messages are coming from people who have been affected by degradation, rather than charity organisations, the message is better received and taken on board.
Education is the most effective form of reducing rural land degradation. Country example: Ethiopia.

Question 32

Micro-dams (Sand Dams)

Answer 32

Self help groups have been set up and have focused on setting up micro-dams in countries such as Kenya.
These are dams made of brick and other materials which cover over areas prone to seasonal water flow (during the wet season). When the water flows through the seasonal channels and towards the dams, the water and sand is collected there.
Despite the SAND and water collection, this helps to provide a year-round water supply for drinking and irrigation (people can dig small holes in the dry river beds during the dry season to access water).
The sand covering the water acts as a natural protection against rapid evaporation of the water due to such high temperatures

.Sand Dams have provided enough water for farmers to irrigate fields, people to drink and for plants to grow. The region now has a reliable water source, and consequently a reliable food source, and other wildlife has now returned to the area thanks to the Sand Dams

Question 33

Model answer - Explain techniques employed in the Sahel to manage RLD and comment on the effectiveness of them 12m

Answer 33

There are many strategies which have been introduced across the Sahel to deal with RLD.

One strategy which has been introduced in Burkina Faso is stone lines. These are lines of stones built along the contours of the land (1).
Stone lines slow the water flowing over the soil, stop the topsoil from being washed away and improve the drainage of water through the soil. (1)
Stone lines are a very effective measure in reducing the effects of RLD. Stone lines use local materials and involve the local community. In some communities crop yields have been increased by as much as 50% (1).

A second strategy used in countries like Niger is the managing of grazing areas. Farmers fence off their land into sections and rotate their animals through these different sections (1).
This protects the soil from being completely stripped of the vegetation and from compaction by hooves; allowing the soil and grasses to recover, protecting it from erosion (1).
The main disadvantage of this method is the cost of fencing e.g. 3000 euros per kilometre; a cost which is far out of reach for many farmers in the developing countries of the Sahel(1)

.Reducing herd size is a strategy used in Senegal. Reducing the number of cattle and focusing on the quality rather than the quantity of the herds, decreases grazing pressure on the land (1).
The soil is no longer being fully stripped of its vegetation or compacted by as many hooves overall, reducing erosion of the soil (1).
However, this is a sensitive issue as traditionally the size of a herd is often a measure of an individual’s status within the tribe and therefore herders may be resistant to change(1).

Educating farmers about the causes, consequences and possible cures of RLD has been used in countries like Ethiopia (1).
Farmers are educated about RLD and they then teach others across different communities about how to combat RLD (1).
Given the fact the information is coming from farmers who have been directly affected by RLD themselves, rather than charity organisations, the messages are better received and communicated more quickly across large distances (1).

Micro dams are stone or concrete dams built across seasonal rivers (1).
These dams trap seasonal rainfall and allow for an all year round supply of water for communities(1). The stored water is also protected from evaporation due to such high temperatures in the Sahel by the sand which is washed down the river (1).
Additionally, the micro-dams mean the women and girls no longer have to spend their days fetching water and the children can therefore go to school which increases literacy rates in the country –improving the country’s development (1).

Afforestation programmes like the Great Green Wall project is a final strategy introduced across the Sahel. The Great Green Wallis a 7,700 km long area of woodland which stretches from East Africa across to West Africa (1).
The planted trees bind the soil, add nutrients and protect the soil from erosion (1).
Although the programme has grand ambitions –the high cost of fencing to prevent trees being chopped down illegally or the land being grazed means that the project is simply too expensive for many of the countries involved, despite generous foreign investments (1).