Ruminants Flashcards
Bovine Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency (BLAD)
Holstein Calf
Recurrent infections
Death 2wks to 8mo.
Dx: Genetic test - autosomal recessive
- persistent neutrophilia & lymphocytosis.
Congenital Hypotrichosis
Normal appearing skin
Hair lost 2wks of age
+/- lack of horns, macroglossia, dental abnormalities, abnormal coat decoloration, death.
Autosomal recessive
Hypophyseal hypoplasia may be present.
Also in sheep & goats.
Chediak Higashi Syndrome
Hereford, Japanese Black, Brangus
Diluted coat color / incomplete albinism
Recurrent infection
Bleeding tendency after trauma
Dx- usually evident @ PE. Labwork: serum ionized Ca, K, Ph, Mg, PCV, and total protein for IV fluid plan. PCR test mutant gene.
Rx. Palliative
Autosomal recessive
Abnormal giant granules in leukocytes, melanocytes, platelets, renal tubular cells, epithelial cells and Kupffer cells.
Mannosidosis
2 types:
- Alpha-mannosidosis:
Angus, Murray Grey, Simmental, Galloway, Holstein
Abortion, neonatal death, or death within 1 yr
In young calves - poor doer, ataxia, head tremor, aggression, failure to thrive
- Beta-mannosidosis:
Saler cattle and Nubian and Nubian-cross goats
Ataxia and recumbency in young animal
Dx: PCR
Rx: None
Pearls:
Autosomal recessive
Lysosomal storage disease
Weaver Syndrome
Classic case:Most common in Brown Swiss cattle
Cows 5-8 mos old
Progressive odd weaving gait
Ataxia, dysmetria in pelvic limbs
Decreased conscious proprioception and ataxia in all four limbs
Progressive paraparesis
Dx:Genetic test
Rx:None, euthanize
Pearls:
Also called bovine progressive degenerative myelocephalopathy
Have normal spinal reflexes and cranial nerves
Citrullinemia
Classic case: Occurs in Holstein and Holstein-Friesian cows
Healthy at birth
Acute onset of depression, aimless wandering, blindness, seizures, opisthotonus, and recumbency
Affected calves die of acute neurologic disease in 1-4 d
Dx: PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
Rx: Usually none, euthanized
Recently some success with gene therapy
Pearls:
Signs due to hyperammonemia
Autosomal recessive
Single base substitution causes deficiency in argininosuccinate synthetase, leading to enzymatic disruption of the urea cycle
Should screen breeding sires
Bovine Lymphosarcoma
Classic case:
Central nervous system - paraplegia, tetraplegia, paraparesis, tetraparesis; head tilt, facial paralysis, dysphagia
Gastrointestinal system - free gas bloat, vagal indigestion, palpably enlarged abdominal lymph nodes, melena, thickened rectum
Lymph nodes - lymphadenopathy, exophthalmos, weight loss
Heart - unexpected and sudden collapse, death, congestive heart failure, jugular pulse, distended jugular or mammary veins, arrhythmia, tachycardia, weak pulse, subcutaneous edema
Dx:
Etiology: bovine leukemia virus (BLV), an oncogenic retrovirus
Lymph node biopsy
Positive antibodies (AGID or ELISA) to BLV
PCR or antigen-capture ELISA for BLV
Rx:NO effective or legal treatment; D-penicillamine has been given to affected pregnant cattle to save a valuable calf but questionable
Pearls:
Grave prognosis
Affected cows will not pass slaughter inspection
Cows with BLV – most are asymptomatic, 5-10% get lymphosarcoma, and 30% have persistent lymphocytosis
Ketosis
3 types – thin cow up to 45 days post-partum (type I), obese cow peri-partum (type II), too much silage at any stage of lactation (silage type)
Dairy cow 1-4 weeks post-partum with mild anorexia, low milk production, malodorous breath
Pica or paresthesia, aggressive behavior
Mild proprioceptive deficits with hepatic failure
Dx:
Measure betahydroxybutyric acid in blood (best), milk, or urine; diagnostic is greater than 14.4 mg/dL in whole blood
Look for acetoacetic acid in urine with dipstick
Thorough dental examination
Rx:Depends on type:
Type I – simple and short term Rx: oral propylene glycol, IV dextrose, corticosteroids, oral potassium and calcium salts
Type II – difficult and longer-term Rx: transfaunate and force-feed, IV dextrose, oral potassium and calcium salts, insulin
Silage type – don’t feed silage with high concentrations of butyric acid to pre- and post-fresh cows!
Pearls:
Type I – excellent prognosis; prevent with low protein diet, maximize energy in early lactation, and monensin
Type II – poor prognosis; cull obese cows
Economically important because higher culling rates, more retained placentas & decreased pregnancy rates and milk production in obese cows
Bovine Viral Diarrhea
Unvaccinated younger cow with acute diarrhea, nasal discharge, ptyalism, ocular discharge, oral ulcers, fever, anorexia, coronitis
In-utero infection: early embryonic death, cerebellar hypoplasia, developmental defects, abortion
Persistent infection (PI): If a cow becomes infected by aNON-cytopathic strain of virus between 40-120 days gestation, or calf is from a PI dam, the calf will be PI and act as a reservoir; if infected by cytopathic strain later in life, cow gets mucosal disease
Mucosal disease: acute signs and fatal with 2-4 weeks
Dx:
Etiology: bovine viral diarrhea virus, aPestivirus
PCR on milk
Antigen-capture ELISA on blood or tissue
Virus isolation or histopath at necropsy
Ear notching for PI cattle: use PCR or ELISA
Rx:
None
Prevention: Test and remove PI calves; vaccinate
Pearls:
Grave prognosis except for subclinical disease in adult vaccinated cow
Worldwide, economically important pestivirus
Not zoonotic but very contagious
Omphalitis, septicemia, joint ill, meningitis
Classic case:
Omphalitis – fever with swollen, painful umbilicus and patent urachus +/- GI pain with 2º peritonitis
Septicemia – calf less than 2 weeks old with fever, diarrhea, depression, systemic compromise
Joint ill – lameness with painful, swollen joint
Meningitis – opisthotonus, hyperesthesia
Dx:
Omphalitis – palpate and ultrasound umbilical structures
Joint ill – ultrasound/radiograph affected joint, aspirate and culture joint fluid
Meningitis – CSF aspirate shows increased WBC count and protein
Rx:Antibiotics and…
Omphalitis: Surgical removal for advanced cases
Joint ill: Lavage joint then instill antibiotics; analgesics/NSAIDs
Meningitis and septicemia: Systemic supportive care, NSAIDs, diazepam if seizures
Prevention: Make sure calves get a minimum 500 grams IgG on first feeding and 4 L colostrum by 2 hours of age; clean calving environment
Pearls:
Prognosis variable – good for omphalitis, poor for others (though some joints better than others)
Measure total protein at 24 hours’ age – adequate colostral transfer if greater than 5.5 g/dL
Traumatic Reticuloperitonitis
Classic case:Cow over 2 months of age with:
Acute anorexia and agalactia, unwillingness to move or lie down, arched back, fever, positive grunt test
+/- Papple shape (pear on right and apple on left) and scant feces if secondary vagal indigestion
Dx:
Positive withers grunt test – pinch withers while listening for a vocalization with stethoscope
Positive abdominal rebound test – percuss abdomen while looking for splinting and violent responses
Abdominocentesis – purulent or serosanguineous fluid
Cranial abdominal ultrasound or radiography
Rx:Similar outcomes with medical and surgical, better prognosis if treated early
Medical – magnet, laxatives, antibiotics, analgesics
Surgical – rumenotomy, antibiotics, magnet
Prevention: ONE magnet per cow given at 400-600 pounds weight prevents almost all cases!
Pearls:
75% survival; bad outcome with secondary vagal indigestion, diffuse peritonitis, and pericardial involvement
Polioencephalomalacia
Classic case:Less than 2-year-old grain-fed cow with:
Sudden onset segregation from herd
Aimless wandering, recumbent, convulsing, odontoprisis
Star-gazing, tetraparesis, hyperesthesia, opisthotonus
Blind with normal PLR
Dx:
Transketolase: measures activity of thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP): high TPP effect is diagnostic
Therapeutic response to thiamine within 24 h
CSF: Normal to pleiocytosis and increased protein
Rule out lead poisoning with whole blood sample
Rx:
Thiamine, anticonvulsants if needed
Prevent in herdmates of affected cow by giving them thiamine
Pearls:
Occurs with: High rumen thiaminase activity with high-grain diets, raw soybeans in diet, & possibly high dietary sulfur (does not affect thiamine levels but causes polioencephalomalacia)
Good prognosis; only die if Rx is delayed or with sulfur toxicity version
Johnes Disease
Mycobacterium aviumsubsp.paratuberculosis
Classic case:Most cases are subclinical, but 3 clinical stages of disease:
Stage 1: Young asymptomatic, infected; NOT yet shedding and NOT reactive on diagnostic tests
Stage 2: Older asymptomatic, infected; shedding and positive on culture and ELISA
Stage 3: 3 to 5-year old thin cattle with voluminous diarrhea, decreased milk production, brisket edema, enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes
NOloss of conscious proprioception,NOfacial paralysis,NOHorner syndrome
Dx:None are very sensitive in early disease
Individual animal: Fecal culture (gold standard!), PCR, rectal mucosal histopathology
Herd-level: Pooled fecal culture, PCR when positive
Herd surveillance: Serum or milk ELISA (serum more sensitive, both very specific)
Rx:None; euthanize affected cows and REPORT
Can improve herds with managerial changes, e.g.: separate manure handling and feeding instruments, do NOT pool colostrum, annual ELISAs, maintain young herd
Pearls:
Tip of the iceberg – for every stage 3 cow, expect 3–4 x more cows in stage 2 and 10–15 x more cows in stage 1
Abortion
Classic case: May or may not see fetus but cow no longer pregnant
Abortions can be classified loosely as: early, mid-, or late-term (1st, 2nd, or 3rd trimester)
Dx: Definitive Dx difficult (only in 30% of cases) due to fetal autolysis, disappearance of toxins, self-correction of physical causes, and abortion often occurs long after infection
Specific etiologies may cause abortion at specific stages of gestation, for example:
Early (1st half gestation): trichomoniasis, heat
Mid: Neosporosis
Late: Foothill abortion, brucellosis, leptospirosis, listeriosis, sarcocystosis, mycoplasma/ureaplasma, nitrates, anaplasmosis, Ponderosa pine, Chlamydia
Variable: Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), Campylobacter, Trueperella, prostaglandin shot
Fetal or placental tissue analysis: Culture, PCR, immunofluorescence, etc.
Dam testing: Serology, PCR, etc.
Specific tests depend on DfDx list
Rx: None; prevent with…
Vaccinate dams against: Leptospirosis, IBR, BVD, brucellosis, Campylobacter fetus
Test bulls to prevent trichomoniasis
Check feed for nitrates
Wait until 3rd trimester to put dams on Foothill Agent-infected pastures
Keep dogs off pastures (prevents Neospora caninum)
Pearls:
Normal abortion rate = 1%; investigate if 3–5%!
Develop list of DfDx based on timing (early, mid, or late)
Brucellosis and trichomoniasis are REPORTABLE
Calf diarrhea
Classic case: 2–10-day old calf with diarrhea, lethargy, depression, hypothermia, sepsis
Dx:
Ensure adequate colostrum to calf (normal = refractometer total protein >5.5 gm/dL)
Use laboratory values (e.g., blood pH, bicarbonate, base excess, glucose) to optimize fluid therapy for severely dehydrated calves
Salmonella spp.: Culture stool at least 5 times
Giardia spp. and cryptosporidia: Fecal flotation with direct smear (Giardia) and acid fast stain (crypto) and/or immunoassays
BVD: PCR on ear tissue or blood
Rotavirus: Fecal Rotazyme test
Coronavirus: Fluorescent antibody tests on duodenal jejunal samples
Rx:
If calf over 5–7% dehydrated & very sick use IVF – determine type based on pH status/base deficit (usually sodium bicarbonate with dextrose)
If calf less than 5–7% dehydrated use enteral fluids – electrolyte replacer and milk
+/- Antimicrobials and antiinflammatories
Prevention: Good calf management – clean calving areas and hutches, provide good quality colostrum (1 gallon colostrum per 100 lb calf in first feed)
Pearls:
Most outbreaks of diarrhea in calves are caused by a combination of pathogens
Lumpy Jaw & Wooden Tongue
Classic case:Any age/breed/use of cow with:
Lumpy jaw: Gradual onset of hard, non-movable masses on facial bones (rarely draining) with weight loss and quidding
Wooden tongue: Lethargy, ptyalism, protruding tongue, swollen throatlatch, stridor, dysphagia; hard, irregular, firm soft tissues in mouth and pharynx
Dx:
Etiologies:
Lumpy jaw:Actinomyces bovis
Wooden tongue:Actinobacillus lignieresii
Needle aspirate and gram stain (A. lignieresii= gram - vs.A. bovis= gram + rods)
Radiograph jaw
Manual pharyngeal exploration unless any neuro signs (don’t get rabies!!)
Cranial abdominal ultrasound or radiography
Rx:IV sodium iodide
Lumpy jaw: Sometimes cull because of prognosis
Wooden tongue: Sometimes also penicillin
Pearls:
Lumpy jaw = hard tissues getting softer; fair prognosis but bony deformation likely to remain
Wooden tongue = soft tissue getting harder; excellent prognosis
Both conditions can be herd problems
Selenium and Magnesium Deficiencies
Classic case: Stiffness, tetany
Se deficiency: 2 types
Cows
Adult cows: retained placenta, anestrus, cystic ovaries
Mg deficiency: adult, recently fresh, multiparous cow
Recumbency, hyperesthesia
Stiffness, hypertonicity, sudden death
Dx:
Se deficiency: blood Se
Mg deficiency: serum Mg
Rx:
Se deficiency: give Se; supportive care - sling, vitamin E, oxygen, diuretics if heart failure
Mg deficiency: give Mg & calcium after sedation with diazepam (otherwise Rx may cause fatal seizure!)
Pearls
Prognosis: fair to good for Se deficiency and guarded to poor for Mg deficiency
Mg deficiency is more common in lactating cows on lush/potassium-rich pastures with recent environmental changes
Rx with Se does NOT make necrotic muscles recover, only prevents further damage
Mastitis
Classic case:Divided into acute (high mortality) vs. chronic (low mortality), contagious vs. environmental, & by different types:
Acute: serous to serosanguineous milk, diarrhea, obtunded, tachycardic, febrile
Chronic: swollen, firm, hot udder; discolored, flakey, or watery milk; few systemic signs
Dx:
Etiology: Almost any bacteria, most common are:
Streptococcusspp.
Staphylococcusspp.
Coliform bacteria
Individual animal:
Udder palpates abnormally: hard, abscessed
California mastitis test (CMT): high somatic cell count (SCC)
Culture milk
Herd-level:
SCC > 750,000/ml
Various methods to measure amount of bacteria in milk
Rx:Different Rx for dry cow vs. lactating cow
Intramammary antibiotic choices differ for lactating vs. dry cows (and have different colored tips to make sure no mistake)
Observe withdrawal times!
Pearls:
Prognosis: excellent forStreptococci, variable forStaphylococci
Practice good udder hygiene and monitor milking machine function
Environmental pathogens infect uddersbetweenmilkings
Infectious pathogens infect uddersduringmilking
Milk fever
Classic case: Down cow
Acute to peracute, afebrile, flaccid paralysis
Multiparous mature dairy or beef cow
Early cases (stage I): hyperexcitability, ataxia, aggression
Advanced cases (stage II): listless, down, hypothermic
Dx:
Down, weak cow that recently calved or is about to calve is usually diagnostic
Total blood calcium
Ionized blood calcium
Rx:
For stage I: oral calcium salts
For stage II: IV calcium in water
STOP infusion if: pulse gets weak or cow begins to pant
Signs of positive response to Rx: muscle fasciculations, belching, restlessness, and urination, heart slows, improved pulse strength
Float cow in a water tank if refractory
Pearls:
Prognosis good to excellent if no concurrent disorders
Diets that are high in potassium and low in anionic ions predispose cows to milk fever
Pre-partum dry cow ration influences the incidence of milk fever
Clostridial Disease
Classic case:Sudden death common; many varieties of Clostridial diseases in cattle:
Black disease: Icterus
Black leg: Swollen limb with crepitus and lameness
Bacillary hemoglobinuria(“red water”): Icterus, hemoglobinuria; concurrent liver flukes
Gas gangrene: Malodorous wound with crepitus
Enterotoxemia: Bloat, colic
Malignant edema: Necrotic fasciitis, lameness
Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome: Multiparous dairy cow in peak production with “blackberry jam feces,” colic
Botulism: recumbency; weak tongue, tail, eyelids, jaw, anus
Tetanus: stiffness, bilateral prolapsed nictitans, recent metritis or wound
Dx:
Etiologies:
Black disease:C. novyitype B
Black leg:C. chauvoei
Bacillary hemoglobinuria:C. haemolyticum
Gas gangrene: Many Clostridial species, esp.C. perfringens
Enterotoxemia:C. perfringens
Malignant edema:C. septicum
Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome:C. perfringenstype A with β-2 toxin
Botulism:C. botulinum
Tetanus:C. tetani
Aspiration or tissue collection for:
Anaerobic culture
Toxin analysis
PCR or fluorescent antibody testing
Rx:When applicable:
Wound debridement
Local antitoxin injection
Systemic antimicrobials
Pearls:
Prognosis poor to grave: rapidity of disease progression is inversely related to survival rate
Vaccinate using a 6-way clostridial bacterin/toxoid
Clostridia are common contaminants of ruminant digestive tracts and soil
Necrotic tissue is required for clostridial growth (anaerobes!)
Listeria Monocytogenes
Classic case:Weaned-to-adult silage-fed cow
Acute onset pyrexia, depression, anorexia
Unilateral neurological signs:
Propulsive circling
Proprioceptive deficits
Unilateral tongue weakness, facial nerve paralysis, ear droop
Head tilt, nystagmus, strabismus
Drooling
Dx:
CSF: increased mononuclear cells, high protein
Culture:L. monocytogenesin food or brain tissue
Rx:
IV tetracycline
Supportive care
Tube feeding, oral rehydration
Electrolyte supplementation (potassium and bicarbonate lost in saliva)
Pearls:
Prognosis: fair to good if patient ambulatory at onset of Rx; poor if patient is recumbent at onset
L. monocytogenesgrows in rotting vegetation with high pH
Ascends nerves to brainstem, animal also becomes bacteremic
Contaminates milk; ZOONOTIC!
Retained Placenta,
Metritis
Pyometra
Classic case:
Retained placenta: if not passed by 12 h post-partum
May see decomposing placenta hanging from vulva with foul smell
Delayed return to estrus
Metritis: 3 d to 2 wks post-partum
Large, fluid-filled uterus palpable per rectum
Purulent, malodorous discharge from vulva and matted on tail
Shortened estrous cycles
Pyometra: similar to metritis but NO estrous cycles or follicular waves occur
Dx:
Etiologies of metritis: Usually nonspecific infection, but also:
Brucellosis
Leptospirosis
Campylobacterspp.
Trichomoniasis
None needed for retained placenta because visible
Palpation per rectum for metritis/pyometra:
May feel an enlarged, fluid-filled uterus
May have retained corpus luteum with pyometra
Rx:
Retained placenta:
Manual removal potentially harmful
Trim excess tissue for hygiene
Cows expel the membranes in 2-11 d without Rx
Intrauterine antimicrobials NOT usually beneficial
Metritis: prostaglandins
If cow septic: systemic antibiotics, NSAIDs, IV fluids
Pyometra: systemic prostaglandin analogue
Pearls:
Prognosis: good to excellent; chronic pyometra can impact fertility
Metritis and retained placenta reduce reproductive efficiency by increasing calving interval & number of inseminations required for conception
Good dry cow management is essential to prevent retained placentas and metritis
Uterine Prolapse
Classic case:
Multiparous cattle OR first-calf beef heifers
Within hours of calving, at most
One or both uterine horns everted from vagina and vulva
Caruncles [and often retained placenta] are visible
+/- Hypotensive, hemorrhagic shock; milk fever
Dx:
Usually evident on physical exam
Labwork for IV fluid plan: assess serum ionized Ca+, K+, phosphorus, Mg+, PCV, and total protein
Rx:Physically difficult!
Address shock
Cleanse uterus and give epidural
Push uterine tip up and in, working between bouts of straining
Once replaced, fill uterus with clean warm water, and then siphon it out OR fully evert tips using disinfected bottle or plastic baseball bat
Pearls:
Prognosis good to excellent for mature heifers, poor for first-calf heifers
Properly replaced uterine prolapses don’t recur or only infrequently
Prevent uterine prolapses by minimizing amount of milk fever
Frothy Bloat
Classic case:
Acute abdominal distention:mainly onLEFT side
Tachycardia
Open-mouthed breathing
STABLEfrothy green rumen ingesta
Foam bubbles don’t pop
Cow can’t eructate, can’t blow off rumen gas
May be found acutely dead, bloated on left
Who gets bloat?
Pasture cows, recently put on legume pasture (past 2 wks)
Feedlot cows, cause unclear:
Slime-producing rumen bacteria/ fine particulate feed suspected
Free gas bloat also occurs, (many causes):
Generally due to obstruction of normal free gas eructation
Dx:
You canseecow is bloated, but is it frothy or free gas bloat?
Pass a stomach tube
Frothy: if a littlefrothygreen rumen ingesta oozes out and not much relief
Free gas: if a lot of gas blows off and cow is relieved
Rx:
Mild/early bloat:
Antifoaming agents: help froth/foam bubbles pop. ie:
Vegetable or mineral oil, 250-500 cc
Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DSS) commonly combined w/ oils
Poloxalene for legume bloat, but not feedlot bloat
Severe, life-threatening case:
Emergency rumenotomy
Short of surgery, try a large bore (2.5 cm) rumen trocar or cannula
Give antifoaming agents through it, allow gas to blow off (hours)
Pearls:
Prognosis good for mild, early cases
Prevention, frothy pasture bloat:
Ionophores (monensin, lasalocid)
Gradually introduce cows to lush legume pastures
Feed hay prior to pasture access
Prevention, frothy feedlot bloat:
Add 10%-15% coarse-chopped roughage to feed
Ionophore supplement like lasalocid
Displaced Abomasum
Classic case:Multiparous dairy cow within 30 d of calving
Partial anorexia and gradual weight loss
Scant stool with different consistency from herdmates
“Popped” or “sprung” rib cage: ribs pulled outward
High-pitched tympanic or musical “ping” over ribs
Ping on line betw L elbow & L tuber coxae (hip) for left DA (LDA)
Ping on R for right DA (RDA) or right-torsed abomasum (RTA)
If RTA: tachycardia, papple shape (pear on L, apple on R), colic, dehydration
Dx:
Ping on exam is usually diagnostic
Rectal palpation: may palpate convex muscular organ in right abdominal quadrant for RDA/ RTA
Expect hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis-twisted abomasum sequesters acid (HCl); possible acidosis if progressed to circulatory failure
Liptak test: Insert 4.5-inch spinal needle transabdominally just ventral to ping & aspirate
Acidic fluid = abomasal fluid
Rx:
Medical:
Roll and toggle
Blind stitch
Supportive care: calcium, transfaunation, gastric stimulants
Surgical:
Abomasopexy
Omentopexy
Pearls:
Prognosis excellent for life and return to productivity
LDAs NOT emergencies vs. RDA/RTAsAREemergencies
Intervene in herd if prevalence of DAs is over 1%
Good pre-partum feeding practices that maintain abomasal motility prevent most DAs
Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex
Classic case:
Enzootic calf pneumonia:
Thin, weaned calf with good appetite
Tachypnea, cough
Lung auscultation: crackles and wheezes, harsh sounds, no cranioventral sounds
Shipping fever:
Any age cow recently shipped or stressed
Tachypnea, soft cough, sepsis
Lung auscultation: crackles and wheezes, harsh sounds, no cranioventral sounds
Dx:
Etiology: Multifactorial - stress, +/- viral infection, and one or more of the following are commonly isolated…
Enzootic pneumonia: OftenPastuerella multocidatype A, but may beMannheimia haemolytica, orMycoplasma bovis
Shipping fever: Most oftenM. haemolytica, but also may involveP. multocida, orHistophilus somni
Tracheal aspirate, pharyngeal swab: culture, cytology
Imaging: ultrasound & radiographs of thorax
Pleurocentesis
Rx:
Appropriate, legal use of antibiotics
Anti-inflammatories
Pearls:
Most calves recover but delayed time to maturity
Worse prognosis if concurrent bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) infection
Vaccinate against BVD, clostridial diseases, parainfluenza 3 virus, +/-P. multocida
Postpartum prolapse
Classic case:
Vaginal prolapse:
Mature cows with enlarged abdomen (fat, fetus, GI)
Last trimester
Grading system:
Grade I: Intermittent prolapse, especially when recumbent
Grade II: Continuous prolapse
Grade III: Continuous prolapse of vagina, bladder, and cervix
Grade IV: Grade II or III with tissue damage by trauma, infection, or necrosis
Uterine prolapse:
Within hours of parturition
Risk factors:
Multiparous cattle
First-calf beef heifers
Dystocia
Retained membranes
Hypocalcemia
Atony
Dx:
Vaginal prolapse: May see cervix and inflamed mucosa
Uterine prolapse: See cotyledons +/- retained placenta
Rx:
Vaginal prolapse:
Epidural
Lubricant
Replacement
Retain with Buhner suture (a deeply buried circumferential suture placed around the vestibule to provide support at the point at the initial eversion of the vaginal wall
Salvage procedure is an option
Uterine prolapse:
Address shock
Epidural
Cleanse uterus
Glycerol
Lubricant
Replacement:
If recumbent, put cow in sternal recumbency with hindquarters elevated and pelvic limbs extended backward (like a frog)
Helps you push the uterus “downhill”
Repair by pushing uterine tip up and in, working between bouts of straining
Once uterus is in normal position:
Infuse warm, sterile saline solution to ensure complete replacement of the tip of the uterine horn without trauma
Oxytocin plus IV calcium indicated in most cases to increase uterine tone
Caslick sutures and other vulvar closures are NOT useful, because uterine prolapse begins at apex of uterine horn, NOT at vulva
Pearls:
Vaginal prolapse:
There may be a genetic component
Urethra may be occluded causing urinary bladder rupture
Uterine prolapse:
Prognosis is good to excellent for mature heifers, but poor for first-calf heifers
Recurrence is rare if properly replaced
Mastitis
Classic case:Variable
Subclinical (especiallyStaphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negativeStaphylococcusspp.,Streptococcus agalactiae)
Acute (especiallyStreptococcus dysgalactiae, coliform): Systemic illness: fever, anorexia, tachycardia, diarrhea, depression, toxemia, serous to serosanguinous milk
Chronic: Hot, firm udder, erythema, edema, pain, abnormal milk with flakes, fibrin, or blood
Dx:
Etiologies:
Staphylococcus aureus(contagious), coagulase-negativeStaphylococcusspp. (opportunistic)
Streptococcus agalactiae(contagious)
Streptococcus uberis(environmental, +/- contagious)
Streptococcus dysgalactiae(environmental, +/- contagious)
Trueperella pyogenes(contagious)
Mycoplasmaspp.orM. bovis(contagious)
Listeria monocytogenes
Coliforms(E. coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Proteus, Serratia, Citrobacter) (environmental)
Physical exam
Cytology
Culture (normal milk is sterile)
California mastitis test(CMT)
Measure somatic cell counts (SCCs) on individual cow or bulk milk
Uses detergent to lyse SCCs
Add equal volumes of milk and reagent and observe amount of gel formation
CMT primarily used to detect or rule out SUB-clinical mastitis
Watch a shortvideo of how to do a CMT
Regulatory authorities grade milk by SCCs
SCCs are normally 75% white blood cells (WBCs) and 25% epithelial cells
WBCs increase with mastitis
Normal cow has less than 100,000-200,000 SCC/ml
Normal parameters for bulk milk:
Less than 750,000 SCC/ml
Less than 10 coliforms/ml
Less than 100,000 bacteria/ml
Rx:
Antibiotics:
Systemic
Intramammary infusion
Frequent milking
NSAIDs
Dry cow therapy
+/- Oxytocin to increase udder drainage
Prevention:
Decrease stress and environmental contamination
Post-milking teat dipping/spraying
Pre-milking teat dipping/spraying
Dry cow therapy: Infuse all quarters at drying off
Culling/segregation
Proper milking machine management and testing
Vaccines: Adjuncts only (forS. aureus, someStreptococcusspp.)
Pearls:
Predominant immunoglobulin in milk is IgG1
Neutrophils are most important defense in mammary gland
Trueperella pyogenesmastitis (“summer mastitis”) may be associated with sheep head fly
Leptospiramastitis is called “milk drop syndrome” or “flabby bag” mastitis because the rapid drop in milk production results in a flaccid udder
Cattle bedding is the usual the source of environmental bacteria, but several other sources may be involved (e.g., flies, intramammary infusions, ponds)
Acute mastitis associated with high mortality vs. chronic which has low mortality
Retained Fetal Membranes
Classic case:More often dairy cows than beef cows
Fetal membranes that have not been expelled for greater than 12 h are considered retained
Protruding membranes hanging from vulva
Malodorous discharge
Delayed return to estrus
+/- Toxemia
Risk factors:
Dystocia
Abortion
Twins
Hypocalcemia
Increased environmental temperatures
Older cows
Premature birth
Induction of parturition
Placentitis
History of retained fetal membranes
May increase risk of:
Mastitis
Metritis
Ketosis
Displaced abomasum
Tetanus
Dx:
Membranes protruding from vulva
No history of expelling membranes
Rx:
DO NOT pull
Trim what is visible
Cows expel in 3-11 d regardless of treatment (even no treatment)
Systemic antibiotics if systemic illness
NOT proven to help: Intrauterine antibiotics, PGF2α, oxytocin, estradiol, calcium
Vitamin E/selenium supplementation may help to prevent in deficient herds
Good dry cow management essential to prevent retained fetal membranes
Pearls:
Usually not harmful to the cow but can be repulsive to milkers and handlers
Prognosis is good to excellent
Endometritis
Classic case:
Second biggest reproductive problem after failure to detect estrus
Occurs 3 d to 2 wks postpartum
Decreased conception rates
Shortened estrous cycle
Purulent vaginal discharge
May be subclinical
Contributing factors:
Over-conditioning
Unclean calving environment
Assisted calving, dystocia
Retained placenta
Unnecessary post-partum infusions
Inaccurate heat detection (resulting in too much artificial insemination (AI))
Presence of Trueperella pyogenes or Ureaplasma
Dx:
Etiologies:
Usually nonspecific infection
Most often T. pyogenes (sometimes in association with Fusobacterium necrophorum)
Other gram-negative anaerobes
Campylobacter fetus venerealis or C. fetus fetus
+/- Brucella abortus
+/- Tritrichomonas foetus
Leptospirosis
Rectal exam: Large, fluid-filled uterus
Endometrial cytology and culture
+/- Ultrasonography
Rx:
PGF2α to lyse persistent corpus luteum
If septic: Systemic antibiotics, NSAIDs, IV fluids
DO NOT use uterine infusions or lavage
Good dry cow management essential to prevent endometritis
Pearls:
Normal uterine involution gets rid of bacteria in most cows by 2 mos post-calving
Cows more resistant to endometritis during estrus
Cystic ovary disease:follicular cysts,luteal cysts
Classic case:
Follicular cysts:
Nymphomania
Short inter-estrus intervals
Extended calving interval
Increased heat behavior
Mucoid vaginal discharge
Luteal cysts:
Anestrous behavior
Dx: Rectal exam (cannot distinguish between follicular and luteal)
Follicular cysts:
Ultrasonography
Thin-walled, less than 3 mm
More than 25 mm in diameter
Often multiple cysts
Abscence of corpus luteum
Low serum progesterone concentration
Persist more than 10 d
Luteal cysts:
Ultrasonography
Thick-walled, more than 3 mm
More than 25 mm in diameter
Trabeculae
Usually a single cyst
High serum progesterone concentration (luteal cysts secrete progesterone)
Rx:
Follicular cysts:
GnRH; encourages ovulation
Luteinizing hormone (LH)-type treatment
Manual rupture per rectum may cause ovarian trauma and hemorrhage
Luteal cysts:
PGF2α; encourages luteal lysis
Treatment will allow estrus in 3-5 d
Do not rupture manually
Pearls:
Follicular cysts:
Nymphomania is due to increased estradiol and decreased progesterone
May have a genetic component
GnRH causes release of LH from anterior pituitary
Parturient paresis (milk fever)
Classic case:
Most common in high-producing dairy cows, cows on their 3rd or more lactation, Jersey cows, multiparous mature dairy or beef cows
Occurs within 72 h post-parturition
Associated with rapid-onset milk production
3 stages:
I (mild)
Ambulatory, weak, ataxic, or down with normal head posture
Hypersensitive, excitable, restless, aggressive
Fine muscle tremors, starting in flanks and triceps, ear twitching, head bobbing
Bellowing
II (moderate)
Sternal recumbency
Obtunded
Cool extremities, low temperature
Anorexic
Increased heart rate and decreased heart sounds with weak pulses
Smooth muscle paralysis which can lead to bloat, failure to defecate, loss of anal sphincter tone, inability to urinate (distended bladder on rectal palpaption)
Neck in “S-curve”
III (severe)
Comatose
Opisthonus
Muscles flaccid
Increased heart rate with no pulses
Death can occur within hours if no intervention
Dx:
History and physcial exam: Weak cow that recently calved or is about to calve
Hypocalcemia: (normals vary betw. labs)
Total blood calcium
Ionized blood calcium
RULE OUT SEPSIS ON ANY DOWN COW WHO CALVED RECENTLY
CHECK UTERUS(for possible dead twin)
CHECK UDDER QUARTERS/MILK(for possible septic mastitis)
Hyperglycemia can occur because low extracellular calcium inhibits insulin secretion
Rx:
Calcium is cardiotoxic!
Intravenous calcium, generally:
Auscult heart and palpate pulses during infusion
Stop and wait if bradycardic, arrhythmic, pulse weakens, or cow begins to pant
Signs of improvement are decreased heart rate, strong pulses, eructation, able to rise, urination/defecation
Re-treat if not standing within 4-8 h
Float cow in a water tank if refractory
Correct lateral recumbency as cow may regurgitate and aspirate
Prevention:
Low calcium diet during dry period
Use dietary cation difference (DCAD) during late-dry and early-milking period to decrease blood pH
Feed vitamin D3 late-dry
Administer PTH just before parturition
Avoid diets high in potassium and low in anionic ions
Pearls:
75% of cows stand up within 2 h of treatment and 30% of those relapse
The practice of completely milking them out to increase calcium reabsorption from mammary gland leads to mastitis and is no longer recommended
Prognosis is good to excellent if no concurrent disorders
Dystosia
Classic case: Variable
Normal stages of parturition:
Stage 1:
Beginning: Uterine contractions and cervical dilation
Completion: Amnion and part of the fetus enter the vagina, “water breaking”
Usually lasts 1-4 h
Stage 2:
Beginning: Abdominal contractions
Completion: Fetal expulsion
Usually lasts 1-4 h; in mature cows should last less than 3 h
Stage 3:
Fetal membranes expelled
Beginning of uterine involution
Usually occurs within 12 h after parturition
Dystocia:
Presentation appears abnormal
Cow looks fatigued
Calf looks compromised
In stage 1 for greater than 6 h
In stage 2, amniotic sac visible for 2 h and cow not trying
In stage 2 and cow trying for more than 30 min without progress
In stage 2 and cow not trying for over 20 min after initial progress
Heifers should deliver within 60-90 min of seeing calf’s feet
Cows should deliver within 30-60 min of seeing calf’s feet
Risk factors:
Weight loss in late pregnancy
Pelvic canal width
Male calves
Cold weather leads to longer gestation and higher birth weight
Dx:
Various etiologies:
Fetopelvic dysproportion:
Dam factors: Genetics, age, parity, nutrition
Calf factors: Size (genetics and environment), gender, gestational length, breed, genotype
Cause of 30% of all dystocias and 50-90% of beef cow dystocias
Malpresentation
Over-conditioned dam
Uterine torsion
Milk fever
Uterine inertia:
Primary: Due to hypocalcemia, uterine overstretching, abnormal uterus, hormone levels, contractions
Secondary: Exhaustion after prolonged attempts to expel fetus
Rx:
Vaginal assistance:
Mutation: Return of fetus to normal presentation, position and posture
Click here to see a video demonstration of correcting a calf with leg back
Click here to see a video demonstration of correcting a calf with head back
Click here to see a video demonstration of correcting a calf with breech presentation
Traction
C-section: Standing or under general anesthesia
Fetotomy
Prevention:
If small pelvic canal width, either cull or breed to small bull and watch calving closely
Choose sires that have low-weight calves by using Expected Progeny Differences calculation for determining calf size
Pearls:
Problems with calf after dystocia:
Stillbirth
Metabolic and respiratory acidosis
Cool calf
Failure of passive transfer
Abortion
Classic case:
May occur early-, mid-, or late-term (1st, 2nd, or 3rd trimester)
Cow no longer pregnant
Finding a dead, mummified, or partially autolyzed fetus
Dx:
Etiologies:
Noninfectious: Genetic malformation (maternal or fetal), fever, stress, twin pregnancy, toxins (Ponderosa pine needles, locoweed, broomweed, nitrates, prostaglandins - toxins usually involve multiple animals)
Neospora caninum: Usually late-term abortion in multiple animals
Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD): Usually early abortion, but can be anytime; usually multiple animals
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR): Usually early- or mid-term abortion
Leptospirosis: Usually late-term abortion in multiple animals
Brucellosis: Usually late-term abortion
Fungal placentitis
Trueperella pyogenes
Tritrichomonas foetus: Usually early abortion
Campylobacter fetus venerealis: Usually early abortion in multiple animals
Listeria monocytogenes: Usually late-term abortion, but can be anytime; usually involves only a single cow
Ureaplasma diversum: Usually late-term abortion
Epizootic bovine abortion(foothill abortion): Usually mid-term abortion
Bluetongue
Salmonellaspp.: Usually involves multiple animals
Definitive diagnosis difficult (only 30% of cases) due to fetal autolysis, disappearance of toxins, self-correction of physical causes, and because abortion often occurs long after infection
Rx:
Prevention:
Vaccinate dams against: Leptospirosis, IBR, BVD, brucellosis,Campylobacter fetus
Test bulls for trichomoniasis
Check feed for nitrates
Keep dogs off of pasture to preventNeospora caninum
Wait until 3rd trimester before allowing dams on foothill agent-infected pastures
Pearls:
Normal abortion rate is 1%; investigate if 3-5%
Brucellosis and trichomoniasis are REPORTABLE
The next blarticle will cover bovine abortion in more detail
Campylobacteriosis
Classic case:
Early embryonic death
Prolonged luteal phases
Irregular estrous cycles
Repeated breeding
Unusually long calving intervals
Carriers may have no clinical signs
Endometritis
Dx:Testing cows is usually more reliable than testing bulls
Etiology:Campylobacter fetus venerealisorC. fetus fetus
Culture:
Difficult
Microaerophilic or anaerobic
Bacteria is labile (innoculate Clark’s media to improve survival of bacteria for culture)
Placental samples may be contaminated with fecalCamplyobacterspp.
Vaginal mucus agglutination test (VMAT) (sample at least 10 cows)
ELISA on vaginal mucus
Best way to diagnose is to test-breed heifers and check for infection
Sheath wash from bulls: Fluorescent antibody and/or culture
Rx:
Vaccination once diagnosed:
Helps eliminate bacteria
Improves fertility
Bulls are given double the dose as cows
Bulls may be treated with streptomycin systemically and topically to penis; cows usually not practical to treat
Prevention:
Artificial insemination
Purchase only very young bulls
Pearls:
Transmitted by contaminated semen or, rarely, fomites
Some animals may have transient infection while others may become chronic carriers
Can spread rapidly within a herd
Trichomoniasis
Classic case:
Embryonic or early fetal death most common
Repeated breeding
Increase in number of nonpregnant normal cows and late-bred cows
+/- Pyometra
+/- Later fetal death or abortion
Dx:Bulls are usually tested, rather than cows, since they are carriers
Etiology:Tritrichomonas foetus, a pyriform or pleomorphic protozoan
Preputial douche or aspirate:
Darkfield contrast microscopy
Culture with Diamond medium for over 48 h
More than 90% cases are cultured successfully
Rx:
Imidazoles:
Treating bulls with pronidazole most effective, but can cause sterile abscess at injection site
Semen can be treated with dimetridazole
Control:
Test and cull positive bulls
Cull all bulls and replace with virgin bulls
Cows with calves and virgin heifers are presumed to be uninfected
Vaccination may improve breeding in heifers, but not in bulls
Pearls:
Transmitted between cows by bulls
Usually self-limiting in cows
Reinfection of bulls after treatment is possible as is treatment resistance
REPORTABLE in many states
