Ruminants

Question 1

Bovine Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency (BLAD)

Answer 1

Holstein Calf
Recurrent infections
Death 2wks to 8mo.
Dx: Genetic test - autosomal recessive
- persistent neutrophilia & lymphocytosis.

Question 2

Congenital Hypotrichosis

Answer 2

Normal appearing skin
Hair lost 2wks of age
+/- lack of horns, macroglossia, dental abnormalities, abnormal coat decoloration, death.
Autosomal recessive
Hypophyseal hypoplasia may be present.
Also in sheep & goats.

Question 3

Chediak Higashi Syndrome

Answer 3

Hereford, Japanese Black, Brangus
Diluted coat color / incomplete albinism
Recurrent infection
Bleeding tendency after trauma
Dx- usually evident @ PE. Labwork: serum ionized Ca, K, Ph, Mg, PCV, and total protein for IV fluid plan. PCR test mutant gene.
Rx. Palliative

Autosomal recessive
Abnormal giant granules in leukocytes, melanocytes, platelets, renal tubular cells, epithelial cells and Kupffer cells.

Question 4

Mannosidosis

Answer 4

2 types:
- Alpha-mannosidosis:
Angus, Murray Grey, Simmental, Galloway, Holstein
Abortion, neonatal death, or death within 1 yr
In young calves - poor doer, ataxia, head tremor, aggression, failure to thrive

• Beta-mannosidosis:
  Saler cattle and Nubian and Nubian-cross goats
  Ataxia and recumbency in young animal

Dx: PCR
Rx: None
Pearls:
Autosomal recessive
Lysosomal storage disease

Question 5

Weaver Syndrome

Answer 5

Classic case:Most common in Brown Swiss cattle
Cows 5-8 mos old
Progressive odd weaving gait
Ataxia, dysmetria in pelvic limbs
Decreased conscious proprioception and ataxia in all four limbs
Progressive paraparesis

Dx:Genetic test

Rx:None, euthanize

Pearls:
Also called bovine progressive degenerative myelocephalopathy
Have normal spinal reflexes and cranial nerves

Question 6

Citrullinemia

Answer 6

Classic case: Occurs in Holstein and Holstein-Friesian cows
Healthy at birth
Acute onset of depression, aimless wandering, blindness, seizures, opisthotonus, and recumbency
Affected calves die of acute neurologic disease in 1-4 d
Dx: PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
Rx: Usually none, euthanized
Recently some success with gene therapy

Pearls:
Signs due to hyperammonemia
Autosomal recessive
Single base substitution causes deficiency in argininosuccinate synthetase, leading to enzymatic disruption of the urea cycle
Should screen breeding sires

Question 7

Bovine Lymphosarcoma

Answer 7

Classic case:

Central nervous system - paraplegia, tetraplegia, paraparesis, tetraparesis; head tilt, facial paralysis, dysphagia
Gastrointestinal system - free gas bloat, vagal indigestion, palpably enlarged abdominal lymph nodes, melena, thickened rectum
Lymph nodes - lymphadenopathy, exophthalmos, weight loss
Heart - unexpected and sudden collapse, death, congestive heart failure, jugular pulse, distended jugular or mammary veins, arrhythmia, tachycardia, weak pulse, subcutaneous edema

Dx:
Etiology: bovine leukemia virus (BLV), an oncogenic retrovirus
Lymph node biopsy
Positive antibodies (AGID or ELISA) to BLV
PCR or antigen-capture ELISA for BLV

Rx:NO effective or legal treatment; D-penicillamine has been given to affected pregnant cattle to save a valuable calf but questionable

Pearls:
Grave prognosis
Affected cows will not pass slaughter inspection
Cows with BLV – most are asymptomatic, 5-10% get lymphosarcoma, and 30% have persistent lymphocytosis

Question 8

Ketosis

Answer 8

3 types – thin cow up to 45 days post-partum (type I), obese cow peri-partum (type II), too much silage at any stage of lactation (silage type)

Dairy cow 1-4 weeks post-partum with mild anorexia, low milk production, malodorous breath

Pica or paresthesia, aggressive behavior

Mild proprioceptive deficits with hepatic failure

Dx:

Measure betahydroxybutyric acid in blood (best), milk, or urine; diagnostic is greater than 14.4 mg/dL in whole blood

Look for acetoacetic acid in urine with dipstick

Thorough dental examination

Rx:Depends on type:

Type I – simple and short term Rx: oral propylene glycol, IV dextrose, corticosteroids, oral potassium and calcium salts

Type II – difficult and longer-term Rx: transfaunate and force-feed, IV dextrose, oral potassium and calcium salts, insulin

Silage type – don’t feed silage with high concentrations of butyric acid to pre- and post-fresh cows!

Pearls:

Type I – excellent prognosis; prevent with low protein diet, maximize energy in early lactation, and monensin

Type II – poor prognosis; cull obese cows

Economically important because higher culling rates, more retained placentas & decreased pregnancy rates and milk production in obese cows

Question 9

Bovine Viral Diarrhea

Answer 9

Unvaccinated younger cow with acute diarrhea, nasal discharge, ptyalism, ocular discharge, oral ulcers, fever, anorexia, coronitis

In-utero infection: early embryonic death, cerebellar hypoplasia, developmental defects, abortion

Persistent infection (PI): If a cow becomes infected by aNON-cytopathic strain of virus between 40-120 days gestation, or calf is from a PI dam, the calf will be PI and act as a reservoir; if infected by cytopathic strain later in life, cow gets mucosal disease

Mucosal disease: acute signs and fatal with 2-4 weeks

Dx:

Etiology: bovine viral diarrhea virus, aPestivirus

PCR on milk

Antigen-capture ELISA on blood or tissue

Virus isolation or histopath at necropsy

Ear notching for PI cattle: use PCR or ELISA

Rx:

None

Prevention: Test and remove PI calves; vaccinate

Pearls:

Grave prognosis except for subclinical disease in adult vaccinated cow

Worldwide, economically important pestivirus

Not zoonotic but very contagious

Question 10

Omphalitis, septicemia, joint ill, meningitis

Answer 10

Classic case:
Omphalitis – fever with swollen, painful umbilicus and patent urachus +/- GI pain with 2º peritonitis
Septicemia – calf less than 2 weeks old with fever, diarrhea, depression, systemic compromise
Joint ill – lameness with painful, swollen joint
Meningitis – opisthotonus, hyperesthesia

Dx:
Omphalitis – palpate and ultrasound umbilical structures
Joint ill – ultrasound/radiograph affected joint, aspirate and culture joint fluid
Meningitis – CSF aspirate shows increased WBC count and protein

Rx:Antibiotics and…
Omphalitis: Surgical removal for advanced cases
Joint ill: Lavage joint then instill antibiotics; analgesics/NSAIDs
Meningitis and septicemia: Systemic supportive care, NSAIDs, diazepam if seizures
Prevention: Make sure calves get a minimum 500 grams IgG on first feeding and 4 L colostrum by 2 hours of age; clean calving environment

Pearls:
Prognosis variable – good for omphalitis, poor for others (though some joints better than others)
Measure total protein at 24 hours’ age – adequate colostral transfer if greater than 5.5 g/dL

Question 11

Traumatic Reticuloperitonitis

Answer 11

Classic case:Cow over 2 months of age with:
Acute anorexia and agalactia, unwillingness to move or lie down, arched back, fever, positive grunt test
+/- Papple shape (pear on right and apple on left) and scant feces if secondary vagal indigestion

Dx:
Positive withers grunt test – pinch withers while listening for a vocalization with stethoscope
Positive abdominal rebound test – percuss abdomen while looking for splinting and violent responses
Abdominocentesis – purulent or serosanguineous fluid
Cranial abdominal ultrasound or radiography

Rx:Similar outcomes with medical and surgical, better prognosis if treated early
Medical – magnet, laxatives, antibiotics, analgesics
Surgical – rumenotomy, antibiotics, magnet
Prevention: ONE magnet per cow given at 400-600 pounds weight prevents almost all cases!

Pearls:
75% survival; bad outcome with secondary vagal indigestion, diffuse peritonitis, and pericardial involvement

Question 12

Polioencephalomalacia

Answer 12

Classic case:Less than 2-year-old grain-fed cow with:

Sudden onset segregation from herd

Aimless wandering, recumbent, convulsing, odontoprisis

Star-gazing, tetraparesis, hyperesthesia, opisthotonus

Blind with normal PLR

Dx:

Transketolase: measures activity of thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP): high TPP effect is diagnostic

Therapeutic response to thiamine within 24 h

CSF: Normal to pleiocytosis and increased protein

Rule out lead poisoning with whole blood sample

Rx:

Thiamine, anticonvulsants if needed

Prevent in herdmates of affected cow by giving them thiamine

Pearls:

Occurs with: High rumen thiaminase activity with high-grain diets, raw soybeans in diet, & possibly high dietary sulfur (does not affect thiamine levels but causes polioencephalomalacia)

Good prognosis; only die if Rx is delayed or with sulfur toxicity version

Question 13

Johnes Disease

Answer 13

Mycobacterium aviumsubsp.paratuberculosis

Classic case:Most cases are subclinical, but 3 clinical stages of disease:
Stage 1: Young asymptomatic, infected; NOT yet shedding and NOT reactive on diagnostic tests
Stage 2: Older asymptomatic, infected; shedding and positive on culture and ELISA
Stage 3: 3 to 5-year old thin cattle with voluminous diarrhea, decreased milk production, brisket edema, enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes

NOloss of conscious proprioception,NOfacial paralysis,NOHorner syndrome

Dx:None are very sensitive in early disease
Individual animal: Fecal culture (gold standard!), PCR, rectal mucosal histopathology
Herd-level: Pooled fecal culture, PCR when positive
Herd surveillance: Serum or milk ELISA (serum more sensitive, both very specific)

Rx:None; euthanize affected cows and REPORT

Can improve herds with managerial changes, e.g.: separate manure handling and feeding instruments, do NOT pool colostrum, annual ELISAs, maintain young herd

Pearls:

Tip of the iceberg – for every stage 3 cow, expect 3–4 x more cows in stage 2 and 10–15 x more cows in stage 1

Question 14

Abortion

Answer 14

Classic case: May or may not see fetus but cow no longer pregnant
Abortions can be classified loosely as: early, mid-, or late-term (1st, 2nd, or 3rd trimester)
Dx: Definitive Dx difficult (only in 30% of cases) due to fetal autolysis, disappearance of toxins, self-correction of physical causes, and abortion often occurs long after infection
Specific etiologies may cause abortion at specific stages of gestation, for example:
Early (1st half gestation): trichomoniasis, heat
Mid: Neosporosis
Late: Foothill abortion, brucellosis, leptospirosis, listeriosis, sarcocystosis, mycoplasma/ureaplasma, nitrates, anaplasmosis, Ponderosa pine, Chlamydia
Variable: Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), Campylobacter, Trueperella, prostaglandin shot
Fetal or placental tissue analysis: Culture, PCR, immunofluorescence, etc.
Dam testing: Serology, PCR, etc.
Specific tests depend on DfDx list
Rx: None; prevent with…
Vaccinate dams against: Leptospirosis, IBR, BVD, brucellosis, Campylobacter fetus
Test bulls to prevent trichomoniasis
Check feed for nitrates
Wait until 3rd trimester to put dams on Foothill Agent-infected pastures
Keep dogs off pastures (prevents Neospora caninum)
Pearls:
Normal abortion rate = 1%; investigate if 3–5%!
Develop list of DfDx based on timing (early, mid, or late)
Brucellosis and trichomoniasis are REPORTABLE

Question 15

Calf diarrhea

Answer 15

Classic case: 2–10-day old calf with diarrhea, lethargy, depression, hypothermia, sepsis
Dx:
Ensure adequate colostrum to calf (normal = refractometer total protein >5.5 gm/dL)
Use laboratory values (e.g., blood pH, bicarbonate, base excess, glucose) to optimize fluid therapy for severely dehydrated calves
Salmonella spp.: Culture stool at least 5 times
Giardia spp. and cryptosporidia: Fecal flotation with direct smear (Giardia) and acid fast stain (crypto) and/or immunoassays
BVD: PCR on ear tissue or blood
Rotavirus: Fecal Rotazyme test
Coronavirus: Fluorescent antibody tests on duodenal jejunal samples
Rx:
If calf over 5–7% dehydrated & very sick use IVF – determine type based on pH status/base deficit (usually sodium bicarbonate with dextrose)
If calf less than 5–7% dehydrated use enteral fluids – electrolyte replacer and milk
+/- Antimicrobials and antiinflammatories
Prevention: Good calf management – clean calving areas and hutches, provide good quality colostrum (1 gallon colostrum per 100 lb calf in first feed)
Pearls:
Most outbreaks of diarrhea in calves are caused by a combination of pathogens

Question 16

Lumpy Jaw & Wooden Tongue

Answer 16

Classic case:Any age/breed/use of cow with:

Lumpy jaw: Gradual onset of hard, non-movable masses on facial bones (rarely draining) with weight loss and quidding

Wooden tongue: Lethargy, ptyalism, protruding tongue, swollen throatlatch, stridor, dysphagia; hard, irregular, firm soft tissues in mouth and pharynx

Dx:

Etiologies:

Lumpy jaw:Actinomyces bovis

Wooden tongue:Actinobacillus lignieresii

Needle aspirate and gram stain (A. lignieresii= gram - vs.A. bovis= gram + rods)

Radiograph jaw

Manual pharyngeal exploration unless any neuro signs (don’t get rabies!!)

Cranial abdominal ultrasound or radiography

Rx:IV sodium iodide

Lumpy jaw: Sometimes cull because of prognosis

Wooden tongue: Sometimes also penicillin

Pearls:

Lumpy jaw = hard tissues getting softer; fair prognosis but bony deformation likely to remain

Wooden tongue = soft tissue getting harder; excellent prognosis

Both conditions can be herd problems

Question 17

Selenium and Magnesium Deficiencies

Answer 17

Classic case: Stiffness, tetany
Se deficiency: 2 types
Cows
Adult cows: retained placenta, anestrus, cystic ovaries
Mg deficiency: adult, recently fresh, multiparous cow
Recumbency, hyperesthesia
Stiffness, hypertonicity, sudden death
Dx:
Se deficiency: blood Se
Mg deficiency: serum Mg
Rx:
Se deficiency: give Se; supportive care - sling, vitamin E, oxygen, diuretics if heart failure
Mg deficiency: give Mg & calcium after sedation with diazepam (otherwise Rx may cause fatal seizure!)
Pearls
Prognosis: fair to good for Se deficiency and guarded to poor for Mg deficiency
Mg deficiency is more common in lactating cows on lush/potassium-rich pastures with recent environmental changes
Rx with Se does NOT make necrotic muscles recover, only prevents further damage

Question 18

Mastitis

Answer 18

Classic case:Divided into acute (high mortality) vs. chronic (low mortality), contagious vs. environmental, & by different types:
Acute: serous to serosanguineous milk, diarrhea, obtunded, tachycardic, febrile
Chronic: swollen, firm, hot udder; discolored, flakey, or watery milk; few systemic signs

Dx:
Etiology: Almost any bacteria, most common are:
Streptococcusspp.
Staphylococcusspp.
Coliform bacteria

Individual animal:
Udder palpates abnormally: hard, abscessed
California mastitis test (CMT): high somatic cell count (SCC)
Culture milk

Herd-level:
SCC > 750,000/ml
Various methods to measure amount of bacteria in milk

Rx:Different Rx for dry cow vs. lactating cow
Intramammary antibiotic choices differ for lactating vs. dry cows (and have different colored tips to make sure no mistake)
Observe withdrawal times!

Pearls:
Prognosis: excellent forStreptococci, variable forStaphylococci
Practice good udder hygiene and monitor milking machine function
Environmental pathogens infect uddersbetweenmilkings
Infectious pathogens infect uddersduringmilking

Question 19

Milk fever

Answer 19

Classic case: Down cow
Acute to peracute, afebrile, flaccid paralysis
Multiparous mature dairy or beef cow
Early cases (stage I): hyperexcitability, ataxia, aggression
Advanced cases (stage II): listless, down, hypothermic
Dx:
Down, weak cow that recently calved or is about to calve is usually diagnostic
Total blood calcium
Ionized blood calcium
Rx:
For stage I: oral calcium salts
For stage II: IV calcium in water
STOP infusion if: pulse gets weak or cow begins to pant
Signs of positive response to Rx: muscle fasciculations, belching, restlessness, and urination, heart slows, improved pulse strength
Float cow in a water tank if refractory
Pearls:
Prognosis good to excellent if no concurrent disorders
Diets that are high in potassium and low in anionic ions predispose cows to milk fever
Pre-partum dry cow ration influences the incidence of milk fever

Question 20

Clostridial Disease

Answer 20

Classic case:Sudden death common; many varieties of Clostridial diseases in cattle:

Black disease: Icterus

Black leg: Swollen limb with crepitus and lameness

Bacillary hemoglobinuria(“red water”): Icterus, hemoglobinuria; concurrent liver flukes

Gas gangrene: Malodorous wound with crepitus

Enterotoxemia: Bloat, colic

Malignant edema: Necrotic fasciitis, lameness

Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome: Multiparous dairy cow in peak production with “blackberry jam feces,” colic

Botulism: recumbency; weak tongue, tail, eyelids, jaw, anus

Tetanus: stiffness, bilateral prolapsed nictitans, recent metritis or wound

Dx:
Etiologies:
Black disease:C. novyitype B
Black leg:C. chauvoei
Bacillary hemoglobinuria:C. haemolyticum
Gas gangrene: Many Clostridial species, esp.C. perfringens
Enterotoxemia:C. perfringens
Malignant edema:C. septicum
Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome:C. perfringenstype A with β-2 toxin
Botulism:C. botulinum
Tetanus:C. tetani
Aspiration or tissue collection for:
Anaerobic culture
Toxin analysis
PCR or fluorescent antibody testing

Rx:When applicable:
Wound debridement
Local antitoxin injection
Systemic antimicrobials

Pearls:
Prognosis poor to grave: rapidity of disease progression is inversely related to survival rate
Vaccinate using a 6-way clostridial bacterin/toxoid
Clostridia are common contaminants of ruminant digestive tracts and soil
Necrotic tissue is required for clostridial growth (anaerobes!)

Question 21

Listeria Monocytogenes

Answer 21

Classic case:Weaned-to-adult silage-fed cow

Acute onset pyrexia, depression, anorexia

Unilateral neurological signs:

Propulsive circling

Proprioceptive deficits

Unilateral tongue weakness, facial nerve paralysis, ear droop

Head tilt, nystagmus, strabismus

Drooling

Dx:

CSF: increased mononuclear cells, high protein

Culture:L. monocytogenesin food or brain tissue

Rx:

IV tetracycline

Supportive care

Tube feeding, oral rehydration

Electrolyte supplementation (potassium and bicarbonate lost in saliva)

Pearls:

Prognosis: fair to good if patient ambulatory at onset of Rx; poor if patient is recumbent at onset

L. monocytogenesgrows in rotting vegetation with high pH

Ascends nerves to brainstem, animal also becomes bacteremic

Contaminates milk; ZOONOTIC!

Question 22

Retained Placenta,
Metritis
Pyometra

Answer 22

Classic case:

Retained placenta: if not passed by 12 h post-partum

May see decomposing placenta hanging from vulva with foul smell

Delayed return to estrus

Metritis: 3 d to 2 wks post-partum

Large, fluid-filled uterus palpable per rectum

Purulent, malodorous discharge from vulva and matted on tail

Shortened estrous cycles

Pyometra: similar to metritis but NO estrous cycles or follicular waves occur

Dx:

Etiologies of metritis: Usually nonspecific infection, but also:

Brucellosis

Leptospirosis

Campylobacterspp.

Trichomoniasis

None needed for retained placenta because visible

Palpation per rectum for metritis/pyometra:

May feel an enlarged, fluid-filled uterus

May have retained corpus luteum with pyometra

Rx:

Retained placenta:

Manual removal potentially harmful

Trim excess tissue for hygiene

Cows expel the membranes in 2-11 d without Rx

Intrauterine antimicrobials NOT usually beneficial

Metritis: prostaglandins

If cow septic: systemic antibiotics, NSAIDs, IV fluids

Pyometra: systemic prostaglandin analogue

Pearls:

Prognosis: good to excellent; chronic pyometra can impact fertility

Metritis and retained placenta reduce reproductive efficiency by increasing calving interval & number of inseminations required for conception

Good dry cow management is essential to prevent retained placentas and metritis

Question 23

Uterine Prolapse

Answer 23

Classic case:

Multiparous cattle OR first-calf beef heifers

Within hours of calving, at most

One or both uterine horns everted from vagina and vulva

Caruncles [and often retained placenta] are visible

+/- Hypotensive, hemorrhagic shock; milk fever

Dx:

Usually evident on physical exam

Labwork for IV fluid plan: assess serum ionized Ca+, K+, phosphorus, Mg+, PCV, and total protein

Rx:Physically difficult!

Address shock

Cleanse uterus and give epidural

Push uterine tip up and in, working between bouts of straining

Once replaced, fill uterus with clean warm water, and then siphon it out OR fully evert tips using disinfected bottle or plastic baseball bat

Pearls:

Prognosis good to excellent for mature heifers, poor for first-calf heifers

Properly replaced uterine prolapses don’t recur or only infrequently

Prevent uterine prolapses by minimizing amount of milk fever

Question 24

Frothy Bloat

Answer 24

Classic case:

Acute abdominal distention:mainly onLEFT side
Tachycardia
Open-mouthed breathing
STABLEfrothy green rumen ingesta
Foam bubbles don’t pop
Cow can’t eructate, can’t blow off rumen gas
May be found acutely dead, bloated on left

Who gets bloat?
Pasture cows, recently put on legume pasture (past 2 wks)
Feedlot cows, cause unclear:
Slime-producing rumen bacteria/ fine particulate feed suspected
Free gas bloat also occurs, (many causes):
Generally due to obstruction of normal free gas eructation

Dx:
You canseecow is bloated, but is it frothy or free gas bloat?
Pass a stomach tube
Frothy: if a littlefrothygreen rumen ingesta oozes out and not much relief
Free gas: if a lot of gas blows off and cow is relieved

Rx:
Mild/early bloat:
Antifoaming agents: help froth/foam bubbles pop. ie:
Vegetable or mineral oil, 250-500 cc
Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DSS) commonly combined w/ oils
Poloxalene for legume bloat, but not feedlot bloat
Severe, life-threatening case:
Emergency rumenotomy
Short of surgery, try a large bore (2.5 cm) rumen trocar or cannula
Give antifoaming agents through it, allow gas to blow off (hours)

Pearls:
Prognosis good for mild, early cases
Prevention, frothy pasture bloat:
Ionophores (monensin, lasalocid)
Gradually introduce cows to lush legume pastures
Feed hay prior to pasture access
Prevention, frothy feedlot bloat:
Add 10%-15% coarse-chopped roughage to feed
Ionophore supplement like lasalocid

Question 25

Displaced Abomasum

Answer 25

Classic case:Multiparous dairy cow within 30 d of calving

Partial anorexia and gradual weight loss

Scant stool with different consistency from herdmates

“Popped” or “sprung” rib cage: ribs pulled outward

High-pitched tympanic or musical “ping” over ribs

Ping on line betw L elbow & L tuber coxae (hip) for left DA (LDA)

Ping on R for right DA (RDA) or right-torsed abomasum (RTA)

If RTA: tachycardia, papple shape (pear on L, apple on R), colic, dehydration

Dx:

Ping on exam is usually diagnostic

Rectal palpation: may palpate convex muscular organ in right abdominal quadrant for RDA/ RTA

Expect hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis-twisted abomasum sequesters acid (HCl); possible acidosis if progressed to circulatory failure

Liptak test: Insert 4.5-inch spinal needle transabdominally just ventral to ping & aspirate

Acidic fluid = abomasal fluid

Rx:

Medical:

Roll and toggle

Blind stitch

Supportive care: calcium, transfaunation, gastric stimulants

Surgical:

Abomasopexy

Omentopexy

Pearls:

Prognosis excellent for life and return to productivity

LDAs NOT emergencies vs. RDA/RTAsAREemergencies

Intervene in herd if prevalence of DAs is over 1%

Good pre-partum feeding practices that maintain abomasal motility prevent most DAs

Question 26

Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex

Answer 26

Classic case:

Enzootic calf pneumonia:

Thin, weaned calf with good appetite

Tachypnea, cough

Lung auscultation: crackles and wheezes, harsh sounds, no cranioventral sounds

Shipping fever:

Any age cow recently shipped or stressed

Tachypnea, soft cough, sepsis

Lung auscultation: crackles and wheezes, harsh sounds, no cranioventral sounds

Dx:

Etiology: Multifactorial - stress, +/- viral infection, and one or more of the following are commonly isolated…

Enzootic pneumonia: OftenPastuerella multocidatype A, but may beMannheimia haemolytica, orMycoplasma bovis

Shipping fever: Most oftenM. haemolytica, but also may involveP. multocida, orHistophilus somni

Tracheal aspirate, pharyngeal swab: culture, cytology

Imaging: ultrasound & radiographs of thorax

Pleurocentesis

Rx:

Appropriate, legal use of antibiotics

Anti-inflammatories

Pearls:

Most calves recover but delayed time to maturity

Worse prognosis if concurrent bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) infection

Vaccinate against BVD, clostridial diseases, parainfluenza 3 virus, +/-P. multocida

Question 27

Postpartum prolapse

Answer 27

Classic case:
Vaginal prolapse:
Mature cows with enlarged abdomen (fat, fetus, GI)
Last trimester
Grading system:
Grade I: Intermittent prolapse, especially when recumbent
Grade II: Continuous prolapse
Grade III: Continuous prolapse of vagina, bladder, and cervix
Grade IV: Grade II or III with tissue damage by trauma, infection, or necrosis
Uterine prolapse:
Within hours of parturition
Risk factors:
Multiparous cattle
First-calf beef heifers
Dystocia
Retained membranes
Hypocalcemia
Atony
Dx:
Vaginal prolapse: May see cervix and inflamed mucosa
Uterine prolapse: See cotyledons +/- retained placenta
Rx:
Vaginal prolapse:
Epidural
Lubricant
Replacement
Retain with Buhner suture (a deeply buried circumferential suture placed around the vestibule to provide support at the point at the initial eversion of the vaginal wall
Salvage procedure is an option
Uterine prolapse:
Address shock
Epidural
Cleanse uterus
Glycerol
Lubricant
Replacement:
If recumbent, put cow in sternal recumbency with hindquarters elevated and pelvic limbs extended backward (like a frog)
Helps you push the uterus “downhill”
Repair by pushing uterine tip up and in, working between bouts of straining
Once uterus is in normal position:
Infuse warm, sterile saline solution to ensure complete replacement of the tip of the uterine horn without trauma
Oxytocin plus IV calcium indicated in most cases to increase uterine tone
Caslick sutures and other vulvar closures are NOT useful, because uterine prolapse begins at apex of uterine horn, NOT at vulva
Pearls:
Vaginal prolapse:
There may be a genetic component
Urethra may be occluded causing urinary bladder rupture
Uterine prolapse:
Prognosis is good to excellent for mature heifers, but poor for first-calf heifers
Recurrence is rare if properly replaced

Question 28

Mastitis

Answer 28

Classic case:Variable

Subclinical (especiallyStaphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negativeStaphylococcusspp.,Streptococcus agalactiae)

Acute (especiallyStreptococcus dysgalactiae, coliform): Systemic illness: fever, anorexia, tachycardia, diarrhea, depression, toxemia, serous to serosanguinous milk

Chronic: Hot, firm udder, erythema, edema, pain, abnormal milk with flakes, fibrin, or blood

Dx:

Etiologies:

Staphylococcus aureus(contagious), coagulase-negativeStaphylococcusspp. (opportunistic)

Streptococcus agalactiae(contagious)

Streptococcus uberis(environmental, +/- contagious)

Streptococcus dysgalactiae(environmental, +/- contagious)

Trueperella pyogenes(contagious)

Mycoplasmaspp.orM. bovis(contagious)

Listeria monocytogenes

Coliforms(E. coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Proteus, Serratia, Citrobacter) (environmental)

Physical exam

Cytology

Culture (normal milk is sterile)

California mastitis test(CMT)

Measure somatic cell counts (SCCs) on individual cow or bulk milk

Uses detergent to lyse SCCs

Add equal volumes of milk and reagent and observe amount of gel formation

CMT primarily used to detect or rule out SUB-clinical mastitis

Watch a shortvideo of how to do a CMT

Regulatory authorities grade milk by SCCs

SCCs are normally 75% white blood cells (WBCs) and 25% epithelial cells

WBCs increase with mastitis

Normal cow has less than 100,000-200,000 SCC/ml

Normal parameters for bulk milk:

Less than 750,000 SCC/ml

Less than 10 coliforms/ml

Less than 100,000 bacteria/ml

Rx:

Antibiotics:

Systemic

Intramammary infusion

Frequent milking

NSAIDs

Dry cow therapy

+/- Oxytocin to increase udder drainage

Prevention:

Decrease stress and environmental contamination

Post-milking teat dipping/spraying

Pre-milking teat dipping/spraying

Dry cow therapy: Infuse all quarters at drying off

Culling/segregation

Proper milking machine management and testing

Vaccines: Adjuncts only (forS. aureus, someStreptococcusspp.)

Pearls:

Predominant immunoglobulin in milk is IgG1

Neutrophils are most important defense in mammary gland

Trueperella pyogenesmastitis (“summer mastitis”) may be associated with sheep head fly

Leptospiramastitis is called “milk drop syndrome” or “flabby bag” mastitis because the rapid drop in milk production results in a flaccid udder

Cattle bedding is the usual the source of environmental bacteria, but several other sources may be involved (e.g., flies, intramammary infusions, ponds)

Acute mastitis associated with high mortality vs. chronic which has low mortality

Question 29

Retained Fetal Membranes

Answer 29

Classic case:More often dairy cows than beef cows

Fetal membranes that have not been expelled for greater than 12 h are considered retained

Protruding membranes hanging from vulva

Malodorous discharge

Delayed return to estrus

+/- Toxemia

Risk factors:

Dystocia

Abortion

Twins

Hypocalcemia

Increased environmental temperatures

Older cows

Premature birth

Induction of parturition

Placentitis

History of retained fetal membranes

May increase risk of:

Mastitis

Metritis

Ketosis

Displaced abomasum

Tetanus

Dx:

Membranes protruding from vulva

No history of expelling membranes

Rx:

DO NOT pull

Trim what is visible

Cows expel in 3-11 d regardless of treatment (even no treatment)

Systemic antibiotics if systemic illness

NOT proven to help: Intrauterine antibiotics, PGF2α, oxytocin, estradiol, calcium

Vitamin E/selenium supplementation may help to prevent in deficient herds

Good dry cow management essential to prevent retained fetal membranes

Pearls:
Usually not harmful to the cow but can be repulsive to milkers and handlers
Prognosis is good to excellent

Question 30

Endometritis

Answer 30

Classic case:
Second biggest reproductive problem after failure to detect estrus
Occurs 3 d to 2 wks postpartum
Decreased conception rates
Shortened estrous cycle
Purulent vaginal discharge
May be subclinical
Contributing factors:
Over-conditioning
Unclean calving environment
Assisted calving, dystocia
Retained placenta
Unnecessary post-partum infusions
Inaccurate heat detection (resulting in too much artificial insemination (AI))
Presence of Trueperella pyogenes or Ureaplasma
Dx:
Etiologies:
Usually nonspecific infection
Most often T. pyogenes (sometimes in association with Fusobacterium necrophorum)
Other gram-negative anaerobes
Campylobacter fetus venerealis or C. fetus fetus
+/- Brucella abortus
+/- Tritrichomonas foetus
Leptospirosis
Rectal exam: Large, fluid-filled uterus
Endometrial cytology and culture
+/- Ultrasonography
Rx:
PGF2α to lyse persistent corpus luteum
If septic: Systemic antibiotics, NSAIDs, IV fluids
DO NOT use uterine infusions or lavage
Good dry cow management essential to prevent endometritis
Pearls:
Normal uterine involution gets rid of bacteria in most cows by 2 mos post-calving
Cows more resistant to endometritis during estrus

Question 31

Cystic ovary disease:follicular cysts,luteal cysts

Answer 31

Classic case:
Follicular cysts:
Nymphomania
Short inter-estrus intervals
Extended calving interval
Increased heat behavior
Mucoid vaginal discharge
Luteal cysts:
Anestrous behavior
Dx: Rectal exam (cannot distinguish between follicular and luteal)
Follicular cysts:
Ultrasonography
Thin-walled, less than 3 mm
More than 25 mm in diameter
Often multiple cysts
Abscence of corpus luteum
Low serum progesterone concentration
Persist more than 10 d
Luteal cysts:
Ultrasonography
Thick-walled, more than 3 mm
More than 25 mm in diameter
Trabeculae
Usually a single cyst
High serum progesterone concentration (luteal cysts secrete progesterone)
Rx:
Follicular cysts:
GnRH; encourages ovulation
Luteinizing hormone (LH)-type treatment
Manual rupture per rectum may cause ovarian trauma and hemorrhage
Luteal cysts:
PGF2α; encourages luteal lysis
Treatment will allow estrus in 3-5 d
Do not rupture manually
Pearls:
Follicular cysts:
Nymphomania is due to increased estradiol and decreased progesterone
May have a genetic component
GnRH causes release of LH from anterior pituitary

Question 32

Parturient paresis (milk fever)

Answer 32

Classic case:
Most common in high-producing dairy cows, cows on their 3rd or more lactation, Jersey cows, multiparous mature dairy or beef cows

Occurs within 72 h post-parturition

Associated with rapid-onset milk production

3 stages:
I (mild)
Ambulatory, weak, ataxic, or down with normal head posture
Hypersensitive, excitable, restless, aggressive
Fine muscle tremors, starting in flanks and triceps, ear twitching, head bobbing
Bellowing

II (moderate)
Sternal recumbency
Obtunded
Cool extremities, low temperature
Anorexic
Increased heart rate and decreased heart sounds with weak pulses
Smooth muscle paralysis which can lead to bloat, failure to defecate, loss of anal sphincter tone, inability to urinate (distended bladder on rectal palpaption)
Neck in “S-curve”

III (severe)
Comatose
Opisthonus
Muscles flaccid
Increased heart rate with no pulses

Death can occur within hours if no intervention

Dx:
History and physcial exam: Weak cow that recently calved or is about to calve

Hypocalcemia: (normals vary betw. labs)

Total blood calcium

Ionized blood calcium

RULE OUT SEPSIS ON ANY DOWN COW WHO CALVED RECENTLY

CHECK UTERUS(for possible dead twin)

CHECK UDDER QUARTERS/MILK(for possible septic mastitis)

Hyperglycemia can occur because low extracellular calcium inhibits insulin secretion

Rx:
Calcium is cardiotoxic!

Intravenous calcium, generally:
Auscult heart and palpate pulses during infusion
Stop and wait if bradycardic, arrhythmic, pulse weakens, or cow begins to pant
Signs of improvement are decreased heart rate, strong pulses, eructation, able to rise, urination/defecation
Re-treat if not standing within 4-8 h
Float cow in a water tank if refractory
Correct lateral recumbency as cow may regurgitate and aspirate

Prevention:
Low calcium diet during dry period
Use dietary cation difference (DCAD) during late-dry and early-milking period to decrease blood pH
Feed vitamin D3 late-dry
Administer PTH just before parturition
Avoid diets high in potassium and low in anionic ions

Pearls:
75% of cows stand up within 2 h of treatment and 30% of those relapse
The practice of completely milking them out to increase calcium reabsorption from mammary gland leads to mastitis and is no longer recommended
Prognosis is good to excellent if no concurrent disorders

Question 33

Dystosia

Answer 33

Classic case: Variable
Normal stages of parturition:
Stage 1:
Beginning: Uterine contractions and cervical dilation
Completion: Amnion and part of the fetus enter the vagina, “water breaking”
Usually lasts 1-4 h
Stage 2:
Beginning: Abdominal contractions
Completion: Fetal expulsion
Usually lasts 1-4 h; in mature cows should last less than 3 h
Stage 3:
Fetal membranes expelled
Beginning of uterine involution
Usually occurs within 12 h after parturition
Dystocia:
Presentation appears abnormal
Cow looks fatigued
Calf looks compromised
In stage 1 for greater than 6 h
In stage 2, amniotic sac visible for 2 h and cow not trying
In stage 2 and cow trying for more than 30 min without progress
In stage 2 and cow not trying for over 20 min after initial progress
Heifers should deliver within 60-90 min of seeing calf’s feet
Cows should deliver within 30-60 min of seeing calf’s feet
Risk factors:
Weight loss in late pregnancy
Pelvic canal width
Male calves
Cold weather leads to longer gestation and higher birth weight
Dx:
Various etiologies:
Fetopelvic dysproportion:
Dam factors: Genetics, age, parity, nutrition
Calf factors: Size (genetics and environment), gender, gestational length, breed, genotype
Cause of 30% of all dystocias and 50-90% of beef cow dystocias
Malpresentation
Over-conditioned dam
Uterine torsion
Milk fever
Uterine inertia:
Primary: Due to hypocalcemia, uterine overstretching, abnormal uterus, hormone levels, contractions
Secondary: Exhaustion after prolonged attempts to expel fetus
Rx:
Vaginal assistance:
Mutation: Return of fetus to normal presentation, position and posture
Click here to see a video demonstration of correcting a calf with leg back
Click here to see a video demonstration of correcting a calf with head back
Click here to see a video demonstration of correcting a calf with breech presentation
Traction
C-section: Standing or under general anesthesia
Fetotomy
Prevention:
If small pelvic canal width, either cull or breed to small bull and watch calving closely
Choose sires that have low-weight calves by using Expected Progeny Differences calculation for determining calf size
Pearls:
Problems with calf after dystocia:
Stillbirth
Metabolic and respiratory acidosis
Cool calf
Failure of passive transfer

Question 34

Abortion

Answer 34

Classic case:
May occur early-, mid-, or late-term (1st, 2nd, or 3rd trimester)
Cow no longer pregnant
Finding a dead, mummified, or partially autolyzed fetus

Dx:
Etiologies:
Noninfectious: Genetic malformation (maternal or fetal), fever, stress, twin pregnancy, toxins (Ponderosa pine needles, locoweed, broomweed, nitrates, prostaglandins - toxins usually involve multiple animals)
Neospora caninum: Usually late-term abortion in multiple animals
Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD): Usually early abortion, but can be anytime; usually multiple animals
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR): Usually early- or mid-term abortion
Leptospirosis: Usually late-term abortion in multiple animals
Brucellosis: Usually late-term abortion
Fungal placentitis
Trueperella pyogenes
Tritrichomonas foetus: Usually early abortion
Campylobacter fetus venerealis: Usually early abortion in multiple animals
Listeria monocytogenes: Usually late-term abortion, but can be anytime; usually involves only a single cow
Ureaplasma diversum: Usually late-term abortion
Epizootic bovine abortion(foothill abortion): Usually mid-term abortion
Bluetongue
Salmonellaspp.: Usually involves multiple animals
Definitive diagnosis difficult (only 30% of cases) due to fetal autolysis, disappearance of toxins, self-correction of physical causes, and because abortion often occurs long after infection

Rx:
Prevention:
Vaccinate dams against: Leptospirosis, IBR, BVD, brucellosis,Campylobacter fetus
Test bulls for trichomoniasis
Check feed for nitrates
Keep dogs off of pasture to preventNeospora caninum
Wait until 3rd trimester before allowing dams on foothill agent-infected pastures

Pearls:
Normal abortion rate is 1%; investigate if 3-5%
Brucellosis and trichomoniasis are REPORTABLE
The next blarticle will cover bovine abortion in more detail

Question 35

Campylobacteriosis

Answer 35

Classic case:
Early embryonic death
Prolonged luteal phases
Irregular estrous cycles
Repeated breeding
Unusually long calving intervals
Carriers may have no clinical signs
Endometritis

Dx:Testing cows is usually more reliable than testing bulls

Etiology:Campylobacter fetus venerealisorC. fetus fetus

Culture:
Difficult
Microaerophilic or anaerobic
Bacteria is labile (innoculate Clark’s media to improve survival of bacteria for culture)
Placental samples may be contaminated with fecalCamplyobacterspp.
Vaginal mucus agglutination test (VMAT) (sample at least 10 cows)
ELISA on vaginal mucus
Best way to diagnose is to test-breed heifers and check for infection
Sheath wash from bulls: Fluorescent antibody and/or culture

Rx:
Vaccination once diagnosed:
Helps eliminate bacteria
Improves fertility
Bulls are given double the dose as cows
Bulls may be treated with streptomycin systemically and topically to penis; cows usually not practical to treat

Prevention:
Artificial insemination
Purchase only very young bulls

Pearls:
Transmitted by contaminated semen or, rarely, fomites
Some animals may have transient infection while others may become chronic carriers
Can spread rapidly within a herd

Question 36

Trichomoniasis

Answer 36

Classic case:

Embryonic or early fetal death most common

Repeated breeding

Increase in number of nonpregnant normal cows and late-bred cows

+/- Pyometra

+/- Later fetal death or abortion

Dx:Bulls are usually tested, rather than cows, since they are carriers

Etiology:Tritrichomonas foetus, a pyriform or pleomorphic protozoan

Preputial douche or aspirate:

Darkfield contrast microscopy

Culture with Diamond medium for over 48 h

More than 90% cases are cultured successfully

Rx:

Imidazoles:

Treating bulls with pronidazole most effective, but can cause sterile abscess at injection site

Semen can be treated with dimetridazole

Control:

Test and cull positive bulls

Cull all bulls and replace with virgin bulls

Cows with calves and virgin heifers are presumed to be uninfected

Vaccination may improve breeding in heifers, but not in bulls

Pearls:

Transmitted between cows by bulls

Usually self-limiting in cows

Reinfection of bulls after treatment is possible as is treatment resistance

REPORTABLE in many states