RS Key Terms Flashcards
Forms
A name Plato gave to ideal concepts
Reason
Using logical steps and thought processes in order to reach conclusions
Rationalist
Someone who thinks that the primary source of knowledge is experience gained through the five senses
Empiricist
Someone who thinks that the primary source of knowledge is experience gained through the five senses
Prime Mover
Aristotle’s concept of the ultimate cause of movement and change in the universe
Socratic Method
The method of philosophical reasoning which involves critical questioning
Analogy
A comparison between one thing and another in an attempt to clarify meaning
Transcendent
Being beyond this world and outside the realms of ordinary experience
Dualism
The belief that reality can be divided into two distinct parts, such as good and evil, or physical and non-physical
Telos
The end, or purpose, of something
Theist
Someone who believes Ina God or gods
Soul
Often, but not always, understood to be the non-physical essence of a person
Consciousness
Awareness or perception
Substance dualism
The belief that the mind and body both exist as two distinct and separate entities
Scepticism
A questioning approach which does not take assumptions for granted
Materialism
The belief that only physical matter exists, and that the mind can be explained in physical terms as chemical activity in the brain
Reductive materialism
Otherwise known as identity theory - the view that mental events are identical with physical occurrences in the brain
Category error
A problem of language that arises when things are talked about as if they belong to one category when in fact they belong to another
Teleological
Looking to the end result or purpose (telos) in order to draw a conclusion about what is right and wrong
Cosmological
To do with the universe
Contingent
Depending on other things
Principle of Sufficient Reason
The principle that everything must have a reason to explain it
Sceptic
Someone who will not accept what others say without questioning and challenging
A posteriori argument
An argument which draws a conclusion based on observation through experience
Necessary existence
Existence which does not depend on anything else
A priori argument
An argument which draws a conclusion through the use of reason
Logical fallacy
Reasoning that has a flaw in its structure
Ontological
To do with the nature of existence
Predicate
A term which describes a distinctive characteristic of something
Epistemic distance
A distance in knowledge and understanding
Mystical experience
Experiences of God or of the supernatural which go beyond everyday sense experience
Conversion experience
An experience which produces a radical change in someone’s belief system
Corporate religious experience
religious experience which happen to a group of people ‘ as a body’
Principle of credulity
Swinburne’s principle that we should usually believe what our senses tell us we are perceiving
Principle of testimony
Swinburne’s principle that we should usually trust that other people are telling us the truth
Naturalistic explanation
an explanation referring to natural rather than supernatural causes
Neurophysiology
an area of science which studies the brain and the nervous system
Omnipotent
All-powerful
Omniscient
All-knowing
Omnibenevolent
all-good and all-loving
Inconsistent triad
the omnibenevolence and omnipotence of God, and the existence of evil in the world, are said to be mutually incompatible
Theodicy
an attempt to justify God in the face of evil in the world
Natural evil
evil and suffering caused by non-human agencies
Moral evil
the evil done and suffering caused by deliberate misuse of human free will
Privatio boni
a phrase used by Augustine to mean an absence of goodness
Deonotological
from the Latin for ‘duty’, ethics focused on the intrinsic rightness and wrongness of actions
Natural Law
a deontological theory based on behaviour that accords with given laws or moral rules that exist independently of human societies and systems
Synderesis
to follow the good and avoid the evil, the rule which all precepts follow
Secondary precepts
the laws which follow from primary precepts
Primary precepts
the most important rules in life - to protect life, to reproduce, to live in community, to teach the young and to believe in God
Practical reason
according to Aquinas, the tool which makes moral decisions
Eudaimonia
living well, as an ultimate end to life which all other actions should lead toward
Justice
notion of fair distribution of benefits for all
Pragmatism
acting, in moral situations, in a way that is practical, rather than purely ideologically
Relativism
the rejection of absolute moral standards, such as laws or rights
Positivism
proposes something as true or good without demonstrating it, as Fletcher posits love as good
Personalism
ethics centred on people, rather than laws or objects
Conscience
a faculty or function, possible of divine origin, that enables us to make moral decisions
Teleological ethics
moral goodness is determined by the end or result
Legalistic ethics
law-based moral decision-making
Situational ethics
ethics focused on the situation, rather than fixed rules
Agape
unconditional love, the only ethical norm in situationism
Extrinsically good
good defined with reference to the end rather than good in and of itself
Moral law
binding moral obligations
Maxims
moral rules, determined by reason
Summum Bonum
the highest, most supreme good
Categorical imperative
an unconditional moral obligation that is always binding irrespective of a person’s inclination or purpose
Hypothetical imperative
a moral obligation that applies only if one desires the implied goal
Kingdom of ends
an imagined future in which all people act in accordance with the moral law
Principle of utility
the idea that the choice that brings about the greatest good is the right choice
Hedonic calculus
the system for calculating the amount of pleasure or pain generated
Consequentialism
ethical theories that see morality as driven by the consequences, rather than the actions or character of those concerned
Act utilitarian
weighs up what to do on each individual occasion
Rule utilitarian
weighs up what to do in principle in all occasions of a certain kind
Non-treatment decision
withholding treatment or life support that is keeping a person alive
Active euthanasia
a deliberate action performed by a third party to kill a person
Sanctity of life
the idea that life is intrinsically sacred
Quality of life
a way of weighing the extrinsic experience of life, that affects or justifies whether or not it is worth continuing life
Personhood
the quality of human life that makes it worthy, usually linked to certain higher capacities
Autonomy and the right to die
the idea that human freedom should extend to decide the manner and time of death
Voluntary euthanasia
when a person’s life is ended painlessly by a third party at their own request
Non-voluntary euthanasia
when a person is unable to express their wish to die but there are reasonable grounds for ending their life painlessly
Dignity
the worth or quality of life
Palliative care
end-of-life care to make the person’s remaining moments of life as comfortable as possible
Involuntary euthanasia
When a person is killed against their wishes
Capitalism
an economic system based on the private ownership of how things are made and sold, in which businesses compete freely with each other in order to make profits
Shareholder
a person who has invested money in a business in return for a share of the profits
Corporate social responsinility
a sense that businesses have wider responsibilities than simply to their shareholders, including the communities they live and work in and to the environment
whistle-blowing
when an employee discloses wrongdoing to the employer or to the public
globalisation
the integration of economies, industries, markets, cultures and policymaking around the world
Stakeholder
a person who is affected by or involved in some form of relationship with a business
consumerism
a set of social beliefs that put a high value on acquiring material things
will
the part of human nature that makes free choices
sin
disobeying the will and commands of God
grace
God’s free and undeserved love for humanity
the Fall
the biblical event in which Adam and Eve disobeyed God’s command, the imperfect state of humanity
neoplatonism
philosophical thinking arising from the ideas of Plato
redeemed
‘saved’ from sin by the sacrifice of Christ
concordia
human friendship
cupiditas
love of worldly things and of selfish desires
caritas
a love of others and virtues
concupiscence
uncontrollable desire for physical pleasures and material things
ecclesia
heavenly society, in contrast with earthly society
disembodied existence
existing without a physical body
resurrection
living on after death in a glorified physical form in a new realm
beatific vision
a face-to-face encounter with God
purgatory
a place where people go, temporarily, after death to be cleansed of sin
election
predestination, chosen by God for heaven or hell
limited election
the idea that God only chooses a certain number of people for heaven
original sin
a state of wrongdoing in which people are born because of the sin of Adam and Eve
unlimited election
the view that all people are called to salvation but only a few will be saved
universalism
the view that all people will be saved
parable
a story told to highlight a moral message
particular judgement
judgement for each person at the point of death
parousia
the Second Coming of Christ
faith
voluntary commitment to a belief without the need for complete evidence to support it
Natural theology
drawing conclusions about the nature and activity of God by using reason and observing the world
protestantism
a form of Christianity which rejects the authority of the Catholic Church and places a greater emphasis on the Bible and personal faith
revelation
when God chooses to let himself be known
Immediate revelation
where someone is given direct knowledge of God
Mediate revelation
where someone gains knowledge of God in a secondary, non-direct way
wisdom literature
a genre of writing from the ancient world, teaching about wisdom and virtue
Son of God
a term for Jesus that emphasises that he is God incarnate
liberator
someone who frees a group of people
Rabbi
a Jewish teacher, often associated with having followers
Homoousios
of the same substance or same being
Word
from the Greek ‘logos’, another name for the second person of the Trinity
Redemption
the action of saving or being saved from sin, error or evil
incarnation
God born as a human being, in Jesus Christ
Zealot
a member of the Jewish political/military movement that fought against Rome in the first century CE
Messiah
in Christianity, Jesus Christ the Son of God. In Judaism, one who rises up against the oppression of the people of Israel
Church tradition
the traditions of how Christian life in community works, the teaching of the Church handed down through time
Sacred tradition
the idea that the revelation of Jesus is communicated in two ways - scripture and the teaching of the Pope and Church councils
Discipleship
following the life, example and teaching of Jesus
Cheap grace
grace that is received without any change in the recipient and is ultimately false as it cannot save
Costly grace
grace followed by obedience to God’s command and discipleship
Passion
Jesus’ sufferings at the end of his life
Solidarity
an altruistic commitment to stand alongside and be with those less fortunate, the oppressed, those who suffer
Omnipotent
all-powerful
Omniscient
all-knowing
Eternal
timeless, atemporal, being outside the constraints of time
Everlasting
semitemperal, lasting forever on the same timeline as humanity
Free will
the ability to make independent choices with real options
Existentialism
a way of thinking that emphasises personal freedom of choice
Immutable
Incapable of changing or being affected
Agnosticism
the view that there is insufficient evidence for God, or the view that God cannot be known
Truth-claim
a statement that asserts that something is factually true
Apophatic Way (via negativa)
a way of speaking about God and theological ideas using only terms that say what God is not
Cataphatic Way (via positiva)
a range of ways of speaking about God and theological ideas using only terms to say what God is
Equivocal language
words that mean different things when used in different contexts
Analogy
A comparison made between one thing and another in an effort to aid understanding
Symbol
a word or other kind of representation used to stand for something else and to shed light on its meaning
Logical positivism
a movement that claimed that assertions have to be capable of being tested empirically if they are to be meaningful
Cognitive
having a factual quality that is available to knowledge, where words are labels for things in the world
Non-cognitive
not having a factual quality that is available to knowledge - words are tools used to achieve something rather than labels for things
Empirical
available to be experienced by the five senses
Verification
providing evidence to determine that something is true
Symposium
a group of people who meet to discuss a particular question
Falsification
providing evidence to determine that something is false
Demythologising
removing the mythical elements from a narrative to expose the central message
Absolutism
the view that morals are fixed, unchanging truths that everyone should always follow
Relativism
the view that moral truths are not fixed and are not absolute. What is right changes according to the individual, the situation, the culture, the time, and the place
Naturalism
Ethical theories that hold that morals are part of the natural world and can be recognised or observed in come way
Intuitionism
ethical theories that hold that moral knowledge is received in a different way from science and logic
Vienna Circle
A group of scientists known as logical positivist who rejected claims that moral truth can be verified as objectively true
Emotivism
ethical theories that hold that moral statements are not statements of fact but are either beliefs or emotions
Hume’s Law
you cannot go from an ‘is’ statement (a statement of fact) to an ‘ought’ (a moral)
Naturalistic Fallacy
G. E. Moore’s argument that it is a mistake to define moral terms with reference to other properties (a mistake to break Hume’s Law)
Ratio
the word used by Aquinas to describe reason, something which is placed in every person as a result of their being created in the image of God
Synderesis
for Aquinas, this means to follow the good and avoid the evil, the rule that all precepts follow
Id
For Freud, this is the part of the mind that has instinctive impulses that seek satisfaction in pleasure
Super-Ego
Freud uses this word to describe the part of the mind that contradicts the id and uses internalised ideals from parents and society to make the ego behave morally
Ego
Freud uses this work to describe the mediation between the id and the super-ego
Conscientia
this is the name Aquinas gives to the process whereby a person’s reason makes moral judgements
Vincible ignorance
this is how Aquinas describes a lack of knowledge for which a person is responsible and can be blamed
Invincible ignorance
this is how Aquinas describes a lack of knowledge for which a person is not responsible and cannot be blamed
Cohabitation
an unmarried couple living together in a sexually active relationship
Consent
freely agreeing to engage in sexual activity with another person
Premarital sex
sex before marriage
Extramarital sex
sex beyond the confines of marriage, usually used to describe adulterous sex
Betrothal
traditionally the exchange of promises, which in earlier times marked the point at which sex was permitted
Consummation
an act of sexual intercourse that indicates, in some traditions, the finalisation of marriage
Exclusive
a commitment to be in a sexual relationship with a person to the exclusion of all others. This is the opposite of an ‘open marriage’ or a ‘casual relationship’
Homosexuality
sexual attraction between people of the same sex
Exclusivism
the view that only one religion offers the complete means of salvation
Inter-faith dialogue
sharing and discussing religious beliefs between members of different religious traditions, with an aim of reaching better understanding
Theology of religion(s)
the branch of Christian theology that looks at the relationships between Christianity and other world religions from a Christian perspective
Inclusivism
the view that although one’s own religion is the normative (setting the standard of normality) means of salvation, those who accept its central principles may also receive salvation
Pluralism
the view that there are many ways to salvation through different religious traditions
Particularism
an alternative name for exclusivism, meaning that salvation can only be found in one particular way
Vatican II
the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, held from 1962 to 1965 to discuss the place of the Catholic Church in the modern world
Noumena
a Kantian term to describe reality as it really is, unfiltered by the human mind
Phenomena
a Kantian term to describe reality as it appears to us, filtered by the human mind
Multi-faith societies
societies where there are significant populations of people with different religious beliefs
Encyclical
an open letter sent to more than one recipient
Missionary work
activity that aims to convert people to a particular faith or set of beliefs, or works for social justice in areas of poverty of deprivation
Synod
the legislative body of the Church of England
Social cohesion
when a group is united by bonds that help them to live together peacefully
Feminism
the name given to a wide range of views arguing for, and working for, equality for women
Gender biology
the physical characteristics that enable someone to be identified as male or female
Gender identification
the way people perceive themselves in terms of masculine, feminine, both or neither
Gender expression
the ways in which people behave as a result of their gender identification
Socialisation
the process by which people learn social norms
Patriarchal society
a society that is dominated by men and men’s interests
Post-Christian theology
religious thinking that abandons traditional Christian thought
Reform feminist theology
religious thinking that seeks to change traditional Christian thought
Davidic Messiah
a Messiah figure based on the kingly military images of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)
Sophia
Greek for ‘wisdom’, personified in female form in the ancient world
Thealogy
studying God based around the goddess (‘thea’ is Greek for ‘goddess’)
Secularism
a term that is used to mean either that religion should not be involved in government or public life OR the principle that no one religion should have a superior position in the state. It often entails a belief in a public space and a private space, and that religion should be restrained from public power
Secularisation
a theory developed in the 1950’s and 1960’s from Enlightenment thinking, that religious belief would progressively decline as democracy and technology advanced. Sociologists now doubt such a linear decline.
Secular
not connected or associated with religious or spiritual matters
Wish fulfilment
according to Freud, this is the satisfaction of a desire through a dream or other exercise of the imagination
Exploitation
treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work or resources
Alienation
the process of becoming detached or isolated
Capitalism
an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit
Communism
an economic system in which trade and industry is controlled by the state
Conscientisation
the process by which a person becomes conscious of the power structures in society
Basic Christian Communities
Christian groups that gather together to try to directly resolve difficulties in their lives
Structural Sin
the idea that sin is not just a personal action, but something that can be brought about through unjust organisations and social structures
Preferential option for the poor
the idea that Jesus Christ stood with the poor and oppressed and that the Church should focus on the poor and oppressed and stand in solidarity with them
