RM Test Flashcards
What are behavioural categories?
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation).
What is event sampling?
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
What is time sampling?
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, e.g, every 60 seconds.
Why should researchers not conduct observational studies alone?
Single observers may miss important details or may only notice events that confirm their opinions or hypothesis = introduces researcher bias into the research process.
Strength of event sampling?
The observer aims to record all behaviour so the results are likely to be valid.
Limitation of event sampling?
If too many observations happen at once it may be difficult for the researcher to record all behaviour so results may not be representative of participants’ behaviour + therefore not be entirely valid.
Strength of time sampling?
The observer has time to record what they have seen so the results are likely to be valid.
Limitation of time sampling?
Some behaviours will happen outside of the intervals so the results may not be representative of participants’ behaviour + therefore would not be entirely valid.
What are the inter-rater reliability checks?
1- A careful pilot study is done before starting any major observational research.
2- Trial observations are done with all observers watching out for the agreed behavioural categories.
3- Observers use the same behavioural categories and tally the behaviour each time they observe it occurring.
4- All the observation scores are correlated.
5- If there is a strong correlation between the scores then the observers are assumed to be reliable + ready for the real study. If not, more training or a change in/clarification of behavioural categories will occur.
Advantages of behavioural categories?
- Enables the behaviour to be operationalised.
- Provides a clear focus for the researcher.
- Allows for more objective data recording.
- Should result in greater reliability (inter-rater).
Disadvantage of behavioural categories?
It is arbitrary, could be making artificial distinctions or missing certain forms of behaviour = reduces the internal validity of the observational data since it is possible that some key behaviour is missed.
What are controlled observations?
Participants behaviour is observed and measured in a controlled environment, e.g, through a one way mirror or on a video.
Advantages of controlled observations?
- The researcher manipulates the environment and/or the variables so it is unlikely that other factors will confound the results = increases the internal validity.
- Controlled observations are replicable because the researcher has a high degree of control and uses standardised procedures = increases the external validity.
Disadvantages of controlled observations?
- As p.ps know that they are part of a study, are in a controlled environment + engaged in set up tasks their behaviour may be affected by demand characteristics = decreases internal validity.
- As the setting of a controlled observation is not a typical one, behaviour demonstrated in controlled observations may not reflect how p.ps would behave outside the research setting = decreases ecological validity.
What are naturalistic observations?
Participants behaviour is watched and measured in a natural environment. The observer simply observes and records naturally occurring behaviour in a natural setting.
Advantages of naturalistic observations?
- The p.ps are in a natural environment so their behaviour is likely to be natural = increases the ecological validity.
- P.ps may be unaware that they are taking part in a study so their behaviour is unlikely to be affected by demand characteristics = increases the internal validity.
(Both - particularly if the observation is also covert).
Disadvantages of naturalistic observations?
- As the situation is completely naturally occurring it is not possible to control extraneous variables = reduces the internal validity.
- As a result of low control over extraneous variables + no standardised procedures, the exact replication of a natural observation is more difficult = difficult to asses the external validity.
What are overt (disclosed) observations?
The observer is clearly visible and participants know that they are being observed.
Advantage of overt observations?
As p.ps know that they are being observed they can give informed consent and be fully debriefed at the end of the study = not unethical.
Disadvantage of overt observations?
As p.ps know that they are part of a study their behaviour may be affected by demand characteristics = decreases the internal validity.
What are covert (undisclosed) observations?
The observer is not clearly visible and participants do not know that they are being observed.
Advantage of covert observations?
As p.ps do not know that they are part of a study their behaviour will not be affected by demand characteristics = increases the internal validity.
Disadvantage of covert observations?
As p.ps do not know that they are being observed they cannot give informed consent and be fully debrief at the end of the study = study may be considered unethical.
What are participant observations?
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they’re is observing.
Advantage of participant observations?
The researcher can experience the situation as the p.p do which gives them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied = may increase the internal validity.
Disadvantage of participant observation?
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they’re observing which may cause p.ps to behave unnaturally = would decrease the internal validity.
What are non-participant observations?
The researcher remains outside of the group and does not become a member of the group whose behaviour they’re observing.
Advantages of non-participant observations?
- The researcher does not become a member of the group whose behaviour they’re observing so p.ps are likely to behave naturally = increases the internal validity.
- The researcher does not become a member of the group whose behaviour they’re observing which means that they are likely to be more objective than if carrying out a p.p observation = increases the internal validity.
Disadvantage of non-participant observations?
The researcher will not experience the situation as the p.ps do so they may miss important subtleties and are likely to gather less data than in a p.p observation = would decrease the internal validity.
What is a pilot study?
A small scale study that is carried out before the main study in order to check procedures.
What do pilot studies use?
The exact procedure that is intended to be used in the main study.
What is a pilot study used to check?
- Timings.
- Participants’ understanding of the procedure and instructions.
- Leading/ambiguous questions used in questionnaires/interviews.
- Operationalisation of behavioural categories in observational research.
- If the standardised instructions are clearly worded.
- The number of participants needed for a study.
What could pilot studies also be used for?
To ask a few participants about their experience of taking part.
What happens if any flaws are discovered in a pilot study?
The researcher has an opportunity to make improvements before the main study which will prevent them from wasting time and/or collecting data that will have to be discarded.
What do pilot studies allow researchers to do?
Establish if the study will generate useful information and if it is worth the time and money.
What are pilot studies an important way of?
Improving the quality of research because they improve internal validity and make the findings more likely to be reliable.
What is a psychology journal?
A psychological journal is a collection of recent psychological studies -> journals tend to be published quarterly + they aim to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge.
Example of psychological journals in Britain?
- British Journal of Psychology.
- British Journal of Clinical Psychology.
- British Journal of Developmental Psychology.
What does correlation analysis aim to discover?
Whether or not there is an association or relationship between two different variables.
What is correlation coefficient?
A statistic that reflects the degree to which two sets of scores are related. It indicates the direction + the strength of the relationship.
How are correlation coefficients calculated?
By using a statistical test and range from -1 to 1.
Strengths of issuing correlation analysis?
- Correlations can suggest trends that can lead to experiments = if a relationship between two variables is established than an experiment in the same area can be conducted to further knowledge.
- Correlations are often used to establish the relationship between two naturally occurring variables = high ecological validity.
Limitation of correlation analysis?
As correlations can only measure the degree of interrelationship between two variables they cannot establish if one variable causes the other = conclusions drawn from correlations might not be valid.
What do experiments have/do?
- Have an IV&DV.
- Establishes if the IV causes the DV.
- Lab experiments control EVs so we are confident that there are no confounding variables.
- The hypothesis states that there will be a difference in the DV as a result of the IV.
What do correlations have/do?
- Two variables (no IV or DV).
- Establishes if there is a relationship between 2 variables.
- The findings might be effected by other variables/might demonstrate a ‘chance’ relationship.
- The hypothesis states that there will be a correlation/relationship between the two variables.
Purpose of standardised instructions?
- Explain the procedure + describe exactly what p.ps are expected to do.
- Include a check of understanding of instructions.
- Inform p.ps that they will be debriefed at the end of the study.
- Remind them of their right to withdraw.
- Give the p.ps the opportunity to ask questions.
