Rise to Power

Question 1

Economic weaknesses

Answer 1

• Italy was predominantly agriculture, with 68% of the population being peasants, taking the role of farm labourers that depended on land.
• South was poor (with no real investment in it) compared to the northern and central areas, geography and climate restricted agriculture.
• Most fertile lands were part of large estates, “latifundia”, owned by wealthy landowners; “agrari”, the poor rest of the population, a large class of rural labourers at the bottom of the social hierarchy. This led to conflict between the classes as in 1904 (a general strike). The dissatisfaction with the social hierarchy prompted people to emigrate, the majority to the US.
• More modern farming in the centre and north, but productivity still less than in other European countries.
• Northern Italy: The Fiat car company was established in 1899. By 1913 exported 4,000 cars a year. Urbanisation led to a large industrial working class, a sizeable lower-middle class and a powerful class of rich industrials and bankers.

Question 2

Lack of Italian identity + Risorgimento

Answer 2

• 1861 Italy gained independence from the Austrian Empire and unified
• People did not feel united, and more loyalty towards their towns + mountain landscape made communication difficult, especially in the agricultural south with limited roads and railways in an attempt to stop the spread of liberal and revolutionary ideas from the north (more industrially developed)
• South was poor (with no real investment in it) compared to the northern and central areas, geography and climate restricted agriculture.
• Only about 2% of people spoke Italian, with the rest of the population only speaking dialects that were very specific to certain areas.
• Risorgimento = rebirth/resurgence: Literary and cultural revival that took place in Italy after 1815. The movement also campaigned against divisions within Italy and foreign domination and called for political unification. The movement succeeded in creating a unified and independent Italy. However, the catholic church retained its own separate state in Rome and the surrounding area.

Question 3

Political weaknesses + Transformismo

Answer 3

• After unification, Italian politics were dominated by liberals, who introduced social reforms and state education and stimulate economic development and growth (feared opposition from masses, socialists, anarchists, republicans on the left, and the Catholic Church on the right). Hence, restricted voting right to only 2 % of the adult population.
• Italians resented at the restricted franchise (right to vote) and corrupt politics.
• Despite the franchise being gradually extended and all adult males being able to vote by 1912, transformismo continued
• Transformismo: Agostino Depretis who was prime minister for the most of the period 1876-87 wanted to unite all the liberals and was prepared to form the coalition governments with politicians of opposing views (not extremists of the right or the left). This was supposed to “transform” Italy’s political life and bring about national support for the unification of 1861. However, it tended to result in leading liberal political parties forming fractions that made deals with one another to alternate political control due to lack of party discipline and no mass parties.
• The urban and rural population did not have the power
• E.g→ This reflected a great political instability, evidenced by how Italy had 29 Prime Ministers between 1870 and 1922.
• Some historians have pointed out that these ever-changing governments indicated that Liberal politics was about the pursuit of power, rather than the good of the nation.

Question 4

Terra Irridenta

Answer 4

= Unredeemed land: originally was a name for lands inhabited by Italian speakers but ruled by Austria-Hungary in the 19th and early 20th century (most importantly Trentino and Trieste). Later the term was also used for surrounding foreign land that Italy felt like they have the right to claim.
- Germany’s example (united in 1871), who obtained colonies in Africa and Asia.
- In 1885 Italy bought the port Massawa on the Red Sea, which by 1890 became the centre of the Italian colony Eritrea, conquest of Italian Somaliland.
- But tensions grew between Italy and the independent African state of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), which bordered Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Ethopia secured it’s independence from Italy in 1896 (the first European country to be defeated in Africa).
- 1911, Italy invaded the Turkish colony of Lybia to increase the size of it’s empire and block French influence in North Africa. 1912, Turkey accepted it’s loss.

Question 5

Threats to Liberalism: Catholic Church

Answer 5

• The Catholic Church was powerful in Italian society, with the majority of Italians identifying as Catholics.
• The creation of Italy had seized the Papal States and Rome from the Church, which the Church resented.
• The Pope refused to recognize Italy as a nation and instructed all loyal Catholics to boycott the elections by banning Catholic participation in the political system.
• The boycott was moderated in 1890s due to the fear of emerging socialism and in 1904 the pope permitted Catholics to vote in constituencies (political districts) where abstaining might lead to socialists’ voctory.
• The Pope still opposed the creation of a Catholic Party, but some Catholics were allowed to put themselves as candidates.
• With Catholics being active in national politics, the Liberal regime faced a challenge.
• In January 1919, the papacy finally lifted its ban on the formation of a Catholic political party, leading to the foundation of the Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI), or Italian Popular Party.
• Mussolini’s growing control of this new party (PNF in October 1921) allowed him to drop what remained of the more left-wing elements of the 1919 Fascist Programme, especially those that had been hostile to the Roman Catholic Church. the new pope, Pius XI, did not support the leader of the Popolari and had previously - as archbishop of Milan - blessed the fascists’ banners.

Question 6

Threats to Liberalism: Socialism

Answer 6

• The industrialization of Northern Italy in the 1880s produced a sizable working class that was attracted to Socialism. A government reform in 1881 granted 2 million more Italians to vote, which could indicate a Socialist rise.
• Moderate Socialists only sought better working conditions, and more workers rights, whereas the more radical ones were committed to a Communist revolution.
• The former group became the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) in 1895.
• The PSI grew in popularity exponentially, having secured 200,000 votes in the 1905 elections, granting them 32 seats in the chamber of deputies.
• They advocated for clauses such as universal manhood suffrage, women’s rights, an 8 hour working day, and income taxes.
• The Socialists still had little support in the early 1900s, but sparked fear in other groups, particularly the Catholic Church.

Question 7

Threats to Liberalism: Nationalism

Answer 7

• Often members of the middle class, the nationalists were few, but found supporters in the media.
• They greatly criticised Liberal politicians for being power hungry, and not caring about the Italian nation.
• They condemned the regime for not making Italy as strong as Britain or France.
• They sought further military spending, a more aggressive foreign policy, and an Italian Empire in Africa.
• Although Italy stayed neutral (despite being in the Tripple Alliance with Germany and Austria), nationalists felt that WWI was an opportunity to gain more land, and interventionists organised street demonstrations, “irridentists”.
• Vittorio Orlando, the Italian prime minister, went to the Paris Peace Conferences in January 1919 expecting to receive all that had been promised by the Treaty of London. However, The country gained no African territory, and Britain and the US refused to grant Italy Fiume and northern Dalmatia, arguing that these were vital for the development of the new state of Yugoslavia. Austria-Hungary had been defeated and its empire dismantled, yet Italian nationalists were disgusted once the likely terms of the peace agreements became clear and accused the liberal government of allowing Italy to be both humiliated and cheated. The popular nationalist Gabriele D’Annunzio spoke for many Italians - especially war veterans - when he called it a ‘mutilated victory’.

Question 8

Situation Prior to WWI

Answer 8

• High disagreement within the country, and even Liberals, on whether Italy should join the war. Most Italians were against Italy joining the war.
• Italy had recently renewed the agreement with the Triple Alliance.
• Yet, Italy was politically and socially weak, militarily and economically unstable, and vulnerable to the British Navy.
• Liberals politicians signed the Treaty of London in May 1915 to join the was on the side of Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia), who pomised that Trentiono and Triste (terra irredenta), would go to Italy if they won + colonial gains + financial gains

Question 9

WWI

Answer 9

• 5 million Italians conscripted, were ill-equipped and ill-supplied, poor military leadership and the war of attrition (wearing down enemies with constant attacks)
• November 1917 defeat by Austrians at the Battle of Caporetto. 40,000 killed, 300,000 taken prisoners. Nationalists blamed the government for not supplying the troops.
• Victory in October 1918 at Vittorio Veneto
• Socialists maintained strong opposition, which signified the failure to unite the country
• 600,000 were killed, 450,000 permanently disabled, 500,000 seriously wounded
• Italy felt humiliated for having suffered such significant casualties and not being properly compensated. This greatly affected Italian morale and led to the resignation of PM Vittorio Orlando in June 1919.
• Vittorio Orlando, the Italian prime minister, went to the Paris Peace Conferences in January 1919 expecting to receive all that had been promised by the Treaty of London. However, The country gained no African territory, and Britain and the US refused to grant Italy Fiume and northern Dalmatia, arguing that these were vital for the development of the new state of Yugoslavia. Austria-Hungary had been defeated and its empire dismantled, yet Italian nationalists were disgusted once the likely terms of the peace agreements became clear and accused the liberal government of allowing Italy to be both humiliated and cheated. The popular nationalist Gabriele D’Annunzio spoke for many Italians - especially war veterans - when he called it a ‘mutilated victory’.
• The former WWI general, Gabrielle d’Annunzio, seized Fiume in September 1919 and established his own (seemingly Fascist) regime for 15 months. This exemplified how direct, violent, action was more effective than weak, unpopular political processes. This made the government seem weak for being unable to deal with this situation.

Question 10

Post-War economic issues

Answer 10

• Loans to sustain the war from Britain and the US increased the national debt from 16 billion lire to 85 billion
• The government printed money, causing rapid inflation (prices increased by 400% between 1915 and 1918),
• destroying middle-class savings,
• reduced rental incomes for landowners
• and caused 25% drop in wages of many workers, unemployments (war industries closed down),
• 2.5 mil soldiers were demobilised and unemplpyed
• The war increased economic divisions between north (war industries: steel, chemicals, motor vehicles, rubber, wool performing well before 1918 due to state contracts and passed on the price to the governmetn when inflation hit) and south (farming affected by conscription, however, the government promised land reform after the war to limit the influence of socialism and Bolshevism)
• An inflation of about 50% hit and greatly damaged the middle class.

Question 11

Post-War political issues

Answer 11

• In 1912, Prime Minister Giolliti introduced universal male suffrage as an attempt to ease the tension within Italy.
• The opposite occurred as many new ideologies entered the political scene, such as Communism.
• As these parties had conflicting ideologies, governing was very difficult, as parties would constantly disagree. E.g→ Italy saw 6 governments and 4 prime ministers in 4 years.
• PSI was founded in 1892, called for the overthrow of the liberal state in 1917 (inspired by Bolsheviks) as economic problems caused discontent among industrial and rural workers. Industrial workers resented the increased working hours due to war which benefited the employer.
• 50,000 members in 1914 – 200,00 in 1919, End of 1919: socialist trade unions had more than 2 million members comprated to 250,000 at the beginning of the year.
• Many socialist leaders were stronger on rhetoric (calling for the use of power) rather on action.
• Unemployment – 2 mil in 1919, causing a wave of militant action by industrial workers. “Biennio rosso” meaning two red years. 1919: strikes organised by trade unions and peasant leagues involving more than 1 million workers.
• North: socialists seized control of local government
• Government led by Giovanni Giolitti did little not fearing workers: set food committees to control distribution and prices, thus, middle and upper classes viewed the government as incompetent.
• To combat Communism the government employed the fascis, a very violent and nationalistic paramilitary group.
• They successfully repressed the Communists in just ½ year, and created a militia known as the blackshirts

Question 12

Propaganda

Answer 12

• Mussolini’s background as a journalist is an important part of his self promotion and the promotion of Fascism. His understanding of the power of Mass media is also crucial to his uprising, though it will also influence the policies of Hitler and Goebbles.
• Despite advocating intervention in the war, Mussolini did not volunteer for the army.He was conscripted in September 1915, and invalided out of the army in 1917 after an accident during a training exercise. He then resumed his role as editor of Il Popolo, blaming the liberal government for military incompetence and calling for a dictator to take charge of the war effort. His Manifesto to the Nation, published in November 1917 after the defeat at Caporetto, called for a ‘national union’ to work for victory in the war.
• Mussolini blamed Britain and France specifically for Italy’s mutilated victory, and used this as a way to power.
• Later he blamed the Communist/Socialists for being against Italy and wishing an Communist revolution in the nation.
• From 1921 onwards. Mussolini’s speeches and articles concentrated on what fascism was against - socialism and liberalism - rather than what it was for. However, Mussolini did stress fascism’s commitment to strong government, patriotism and imperial expansion.

Question 13

Ideology

Answer 13

• Mussolini’s ideological journey from early socialism to integral nationalism was marked by a shift influenced by philosophers like Nietzsche. Expelled from the socialist party in 1914 due to his support for intervention in WWI, Mussolini embraced integral nationalism, viewing war as a means to liberate Italians and assert superiority. The 1919 Fascist Programme combined left- and right-wing elements against the liberal state.
• While fascism lacked a coherent ideological root, Mussolini’s shift from left to extreme right was evident by 1925. The Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals in 1925 and Gentile’s 1932 entry for the Enciclopedia Italiana outlined fascism’s anti-communist, anti-socialist, and anti-democratic stance.
• To broaden support, Mussolini appealed to the middle and upper classes through anti-communism, working class through the corporate state model, public works, and nationalism. He also tapped into popular fears and hostilities, asserting that Italy’s greatness was stolen by plutocratic nations. Mussolini linked modern Italy to the Roman Empire, emphasizing tradition, gender values, folklore, militarization, authoritarianism, and the Führerprinzip.
• The desire for a strong leader, opposition to liberal capitalism, and discontent with parliamentary democracy resonated among diverse classes. The upper and middle classes shared a sentiment of returning to a glorious Italian past and fearing socialist and communist revolution. This discontent fueled Mussolini’s rise to power.

Question 14

Legal Basis

Answer 14

• However, Mussolini reassured Giolitti and other liberal politicians that talk of fascist revolution was not to be taken seriously. As a result, Giolitti offered the fascists an electoral alliance - an anti-socialist National Bloc - for the national elections due to be held in May 1921.)
• Mussolini accepted and won a seat in parliament, but the National Bloc failed to achieve a majority.
• Still, he used his new political position to rally the Fascis and ascend through the political system
• More importantly, holding positions in parliament gave the fascists an image of respectability as well as a foothold in national politics. With this success achieved, Mussolini announced that the fascists would not support Giolittis coalition government atter all
• Even though the National Bloc failed in 1921, Mussolini’s party’s rallies were growing in support, often seeing tens of thousands in support.
• In October 1921, Mussolini transformed the Fasci di Combattimento into a political party, the Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF), and secured leadership through the Fascist National Congress in November
• With vague policy statements, he attracted over 200,000 members, including former liberal supporters. In 1922, Mussolini pursued a dual policy, endorsing violent activities by the ras but assuring conservatives he wouldn’t push for a violent seizure of power.
  March on Rome in October 1922
• The king changed his mind and refused to sign the papers authorising martial law as proposed by Luigi Facta. Facta resigned in protest. The king then asked the conservative Salandra to form a government but Mussolini refused to accept the offer of four cabinet posts for fascists. He wanted the post of prime minister for himself. Salandra ravised the king to appoint Mussolini and the king conceded. Mussolini accepted on 29 October 1922.

Question 15

Use of Violence

Answer 15

• Arditi—one of may similar groups, comprised of commando troops of the Italian army, whose officers hated the liberal political systems. Used weapons to attack socialists and trade unionists whom they regarded as the enemies of the Italian nation.
• In March 1919, Mussolini - himself a member of the Arditi - tried to bring these disparate groups together. On 23 March, 118 people, representing various political groupings, met in Milan and formed a Fascio di Combattimento (‘combat’ or ‘fighting group’).
• Slowly, with much resistance at first, he began to assert central control, arguing that without his leadership and newspaper (Il Popoli), the various groups would tall apart. In particular. Mussolini stressed the need to depict violence as necessary to prevent the success of a Bolshevik-style revolution in Italy. In April 1921, Mussolini made a speech in which he declared fascist violence to be part of an anti-socialist crusade to ‘break up the Bolshevist State”
• Mussolini, without a seat in parliament or any government position, managed to be almost as powerful as the government due to his control of the blackshirts.
• During 1921, Mussolini’s ‘ideology was focused much more on the cult of fascist violence - which came to be known as squadrismo - than on political policies and programmes.
• by 1922, the Fascist Party membership soared to 300,000 of which 7% were armed Blackshirts.
• The party changed its name to the National Fascist Party (PNF) In October 1921.
• In the aftermath of the biennio rosso (1919-1920), Mussolini sought to end factory and land occupations by deploying action squads controlled by ras.
• During the biennio rosso, the police and army leaders often turned a blind eye to fascist violence against socialists and industrial and agrarian militants. In the first half of 1921, over 200 people were killed and more than 800 wounded by these action squads
• As squadristi violence continued to disrupt law and order into the summer of 1921, Mussolini began to worry that it might alienate the conservative elites and unity anti-fascists. His concerns grew on 31 July, when twelve carabinier (police officers) managed to disperse over 500 fascists at Saranza, in north-west Italy. This was hardly the sign of a party able to impose law and order.
• Squadristi violence intensified in northern and central Italy by spring 1922. Fascists gained control of towns like Cremona, Rimini, and Ravenna, with police support. Socialists called a general strike on July 31 to counter fascist violence. Mussolini used this to portray socialists as a threat only fascists could halt. Fascists disrupted the strike, seizing control of public services. The socialists called off the strike on August 3.
  * March on Rome in October 1922*
• In 1922, the Italian King Vittorio Emanuel turned to a liberal politician, Luigi Facta, to become PM and form a new government.
  Hence, the Fascists voiced their discontent, as they wanted Mussolini to be PM.
• On the night of 27 October, fascist squads took over town halls, railway stations and telephone exchanges across northern Italy. The following day, Prime Minister Luigi Facta persuaded the king, as commander-in-chief of the army, to declare a state of emergency. This meant that the government could use the military as well as the police to stop the fascist columns assembling in Rome.
• The king changed his mind and refused to sign the papers authorising martial law. Facta resigned in protest. The king then asked the conservative Salandra to form a government but Mussolini refused to accept the offer of four cabinet posts for fascists. He wanted the post of prime minister for himself. Salandra ravised the king to appoint Mussolini and the king conceded. Mussolini accepted on 29 October 1922.
• Fascist violence increased during 1921-22