rise and development of sports medicine

Question 1

George Cheyne

Answer 1

Who: MD
What: An Essay of Health and Long Life (London, 1724) and An Essay on Regimen (London, 1740)
When: 1671-1743
Where: London, England

• Well known MD in London
• Had upperclass London lifestyle with heavy eating and drinking
• At one point reached 445 lb.
• Realized he needed to change his lifestyle
• walking was main form of exercise which he thought was the best, and recommended it for asthmatics with weak lungs
• For those with weak arms and legs, rec. daily european football
• at age 53 felt a lot better and wrote his first book An essay of health and Long Life–like Cornaro wrote about his recc. on how people could do to achieve a long life
• died at 72, average was about 30
• structure/chapters of book mimicked the theme of the non-naturals
• in book talked about “flesh brushing” which was kind like shampoo and massage to improve circulation
• 3 years before death wrote second book An Essay on Regimen where he wrote about diet, drink, and exercise

Question 2

William Buchan

Answer 2

Who: MD
What: Domestic Medicine: or, A Treatise on the Prevention and cure of Diseases, By Regimen and Simple Medicines (1769 Edinburgh-part of British Isles)
When: 1729-1805
Where: Edinburgh

• First person to write an at-home handbook pertaining to domestic medicine
• the book has gone into a few american editions and achieved a lifespan of 140+ years
• many families depended on this book
• taught families how to be their own doctor for themselves and their family
• focused on regimen and simple medicine–every man his own doctor
• home health manual looking at hygiene and regimen
• acknowledged his health to Cheyne–a lot of his ideas from him
• focused on children with references from Reusseau’s book
• had chapter on laborious, sedentary, studious students–thought that intense thinking all the time is destructive to health
• thought that studious always ended up in a sedentary lifestyle–recc. walking, riding, diversions outdoors and music which has a happy effect in relieving the mind during stressful studying
• had chapter on exercise–it alone could prevent many diseases that cannot be cured and would others where medicine proves ineffective (VERY AHEAD OF HIS TIME)
• thought that exercise should be done in open air–but if inside recc. fencing or dancing

Question 3

Francis Fuller

Answer 3

Who: MD
What: Medial Gymnastics: Or, A Treatise Concerning the Power of Exercise (London, 1704)
When: 1670-1706
Where: London

• Had alot of medical training, disciple of Thomas Sitaham a great MD of London
• book talked about the power of exercise in respect to the human body–thought it was a great necessity in the cure of several diseases
• focused on massage and providing motion to the body
• horse back riding good for rheumatism, indigestion–clears obstructions in lower belly and gives gaiety from its brisk motion
• book for sick not healthy
• compared human body to a man made machine, believed that we are better in that we can exercise and improve our bodies and lasts longer–human body will improve with work and last longer
• Like Mendez criticized those that don’t listen to their physicians–those who believe exercise is too simple of a cure

Question 4

Nicolas Andry

Answer 4

Who: MD
What: Orthopaedia: or, The Art of Correcting and Preventing Deformities in Children…2 vols. (paris 1741)
When: 1658-1742
Where: Paris, France

Question 5

John Pugh

Answer 5

Who:
What: A Physiological, Theoretic and Practical treatise on the Utility of the Science of Muscular Action for Restoring Power of the Limbs (London, 1794)
When:
Where: London

• Exercise to restore the power of the limbs
• Anatomist, not MD—someone that studies anatomy
• Didn’t do his own art—had artist to work with
• Like modern day anatomy book with origins and insertions of each muscle group
• The art was really done well
• Presented illustration of leg with stirrup and outline of horse (riding always been one of most recommended exercises out of knight hood and chivalry)
•

Question 6

Bernardino Ramazzini

Answer 6

M.D. (1633-1714)

Diseases of Workers (Modena, Italy, 1700)
o as a MD, thought that people that do brick laying may have different diseases than people that clean chimneys, etc.
o first one to do this—your occupation can be an important part of your health or sickness
o went back to Hippocrates—would talk to you and ask you about your age, season, time of year—we call that taking a patient history—Rammazini: MD should ask what is your occupation—patients doing work in really bad “air”
o diseases of workers is unique in we’re looking at their occupation
o kind of thinking we start to see in late 19th century looking at athletes—saying your occupation is unique and you experience certain injuries or susceptible to certain injuries that common man doesn’t have—arises sports medicine—so unique, why we have terms that only pertain to sports
o mainstream medicine in the sense he is a professor of med at Podua—professor of “physic”
o originally book in latin→english translation
o in his book has sections by sections of common trades/jobs that people did in 1700’s in Italy
o size of this book was about 5x7 book so MDs could carry in pocket as reference
o chapters on miners, coal miners—MD at end of interview should as what occupation do you follow
o had section on sedentary workers and their diseases
o diseases of runners (“lackeys” or footsmen—servants, used as runners for deliveries)—become thin as reeds, and start looking like hunting dogs, acute and severe diseases of the chest because exposed to rain and wind in light garments, sailors/rowers, athletes (“athletic contest and gladiatorial shows have gone out of fashion—whole chapter about athletes of past, writing as philosphers and MDs in the past that were against athletes—poor diet, tired, sluggish, didn’t have enough sex, pretty much repeat of what had been said in Ancient because there were no athletes at this time”), learned men (term that carries over long after for sedentary workers—rounded backs, no exercise, should be prescribed exercise)

Question 7

European trainers of the body

Answer 7

Gymnastical systems→and their founders
Group of professionals in the field gymnastics→”physical trainers, trainers of the body, or physical→blend of old gymnastes and paidotribes (leaning more towards paidotribes)
Can guess where these professionals got their training→not from medical
Became physical trainers of body because already doing this in the military
Education→educational theory/philosophy (russuea, locke, etc.) + medical (non-naturals, everyone said you needed fresh air, etc.)
Many turned to military, particulary chivalry to look for exercises to do (the people who wanted PE in schools)→climb ropes, swim, dance, etc.
Each individual had a system of gymnastical exercise (in different parts of Europe)→influence the Americas in late 1800’s based upon where it came from

Question 8

Johann C.F. GutsMuths

Answer 8

(1759-1839)

Germany a. Gymnastics for Youth (1793) and “exercise on apparatus”

o German gymnastics
o Private school teacher of physical training, had outdoor gym in grove of trees—close to nature
o Started to experiment with what exercises would be good for boys
o Took all experiences and put into his book (English translation in 1800, originally in german)—talked about exercises he recommended for young boys and apparatus
o Illustration: Swimming one of the apparatus, mounting/dismounting, standing on a seesaw for balance, poles/ropes/ladders for climbing, had other apparatus—all done outside, hanging and swinging→modern high bar in men’s athlos, high bar jumping
o All exercises he designed for apparatus→no athlos at all, no competition, but some apparatus develop into athlos gymnastics later on, but mainline for health

Question 9

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn

Answer 9

(1778-1852)

Germany –a. German Gymnastics (1816)–b. “Turnen”

o german gym. Expanded by this guy—built upon guthsmuth and added upon it
o very patriotic (patriotism very important during this time)—believed in strong german population of males to fend for their country→developed more Germany gym.
o Turnen=turners, turn grind—in his mind was a social and political body in German designed to bring in young males and deal with politics/patriotism and to develop their bodies—key component of turners was german gym. “a get together” public coming to a turn grind to drink beer and discuss politics, eat, and line up do exercises on various pieces of german gym. Equipment—some would stay over night—no athlos→illustation shows that the turnen came over to the united states in central park
• Can’t always do german gym. Outside, sometimes inside—harvard first college to introduce german gym.
 First gym in seattle gym was a turnen (turners=individuals)→turner halls or turner gyms
o Very important to Germany—has statue of him outside of Berlin
o Added in his book to guthsmuths book—stuck with guthsmuth balancing seesaw, climbing, hanging/swinging, NEW: parallel bars (made out of wood, for different types of exercise), the horse (original horse, sometimes used a live or artificial horse with tail/head→then evolved to modern horse→wooden handles=pummels are what’s left of the saddle for mounting and dismounting as part of exercise routine—no athlos)
o

Question 10

Adolph Spiess

Answer 10

(1810-1858) – Germany

o When german gym. Gets popular→adolph comes up with the idea that says turners/german gym. A requirement in all of our schools from elementary school to higher up school, primarily for boys—girls don’t do (don’t know what girls did in 19th centuary)—became popular school subject
• Important to put gym. In schools in the first place for sound mind and sound body—locke, reaussuea, cogan (student audience because sedentary), school kids looked at being susceptible because of their lifestyle
• Germany one of first countries to put exercise in their school systems

Question 11

Pehr Henrik Ling

Answer 11

(1776-1839)

Sweden –a. General Principles of Gymnastics (1834)


o went to coopenhagen in late 1700’s and visited with nachtegall’s outdoor gym
o read guthsmuth book gym. For youth—was familiar with germ. Gym.
o University of Lunn to teach fencing
o Approached gym. In Sweden like guthsmuth with patriotism—use exercise to build strong Swedish population
o 1814 starts the royal central institute of gym. In stolkholm , became director
o had problem with yann and his apparatus (germ. Gym in general)—argued that he wanted to see what outcomes he wanted to achieve and then design the apparatus that can accomplish that, instead of designing the apparatus first—ling developed several pieces of unique apparatus and divided gymnastics into 4 types (some using apparatus and some not)
• educational gym.-where to learn to control your own body with your own will
• military-subject the will of another to your own will with weapon or wrestling
• medical- use exercise to diminish or overcome certain ailments of the body
• aesthetic-exercises that give bodily expression to your inner thoughts—such as dancing
o stall bars for exercise—different types for upper and lower body
o developed Swedish box for vaulting and mounting and dismounting—boxes fit into eachother, could arrange boxes to make higher or shorter

Question 12

Phokion Heinrich Clias

Answer 12

(1782-1854)

Switzerland/England/France–a. An Elementary Course of Gymnastic Exercises (1825)

o army officer
o started out in Switzerland, then hired in England to teach military gym., then ends up in france at end of career teaching gymnastics
o started training soldiers in Switzerland
o book written by him “captain” military background
o wrote on the treatise of swimming (like guthsmuth, but not athlos)
o wrote to develop and improve the physical powers of man—medical faculty in paris medical school exposed to his book on gym. Exercises
o book still has some german gym. And new equipment (flying steps/giant stride/flying course—became very popular for girls, not as strenuous as some german exercises)
o book included wrestling—military gymnastics, included dance as well (aesthetic gym.)
o introduced term calisthenics (but written in greek – kalestenics=beautiful strength)—reccomended kalestenic exercise—done without equipment or without apparatus (push ups, sit ups, jumping jacks)

Question 13

Don Francisco Amoros

Answer 13

(1770-1848) – France

o spanaird ends up in france in 1814
o found out whats going on in Germany and wants France to be strong nation as well
o appointed by French government to put gym. Into society and school—setted up apparatus idientical to yann doin german gym.
o Adds singing to exercises—vocalising for lung exercises
o Adds apparatus with women doing exercise called trapeze (swinging—non-naturals=motion)
o Had rings –some shaped like triangles and some shaped roundly→now rings were called swinging rings→idea was the more you would swing the better it was then you would do other exercises while the rings were swinging→developed to men’s still ring (can’t move rings) event in athlos gymnastics

Question 14

Archibald Maclaren

Answer 14

(1820-1884)

England (Oxford University) –Training, In Theory and Practice (1866) –A System of Physical Education (1869)

o from England
o comes about things differently because he doesn’t come onto the scene until much later
o background was military as well→trainer of soldiers
o oxford university built a building in 1858 called the oxford gymnasium for health of students at oxford—needed someone to teach it and run it—hired maclaren as gym. Director
o introduces “anthropometric measurments”=measurement of man—measuring body parts with calipers, meter sticks, dynamometers (push or pull and record pounds of pressure)—make chart of your individual measurements—his guide to determine what kind of exercises you needed as a student—what were your weak and strong points were and compared to a mean—prescribed systematic exercise
o writes two major books: training (in theory and practice in 1866)→three big parts: top part was non-naturals in appendix: talked about diagrams of athlos→oxford and Cambridge participated in boat rowing athlos (first intercollegiate sport in America in 1852)
• maclaren wasn’t involved in athlos, there for the students
o second book: used physical education rather than physical training
• illustration: had several hundred—one of them showed little girl “pigeon breast” where sternum protrudes (looked like andre did with orthopedics)→tried to identify as early as possible (couldn’t do until college) deformities and then suggest exercises to prevent it and/or to improve/change it somehow
 hallow chest—thought was good, chest not developed, already in line to get common ailment called consumption/tuberculosis (body shivels up, lung disease), would argue that if he finds this and prescribed exercises he could prevent it
 scoliosis—helped through exercise
 drooping shoulders
 all scene as typical ailments of students
 perfectly developed bicep developed through exercise—put a tape around to measure and compared to mean
 had spectrum of good and bad bodies—systematic training
 used illustrations to make his point that regular systematic exercise was good/helpful
 other colleges compared themselves to oxford and Cambridge to do the same thing

Question 15

German

Answer 15

The idea of physical training or gymnastical “systems”
By 1880’s have gymnastical systems that spread throughout Europe—each eventually come to US

• guthsmuth, yann—apparatus, what did they use and where did it come from—1820’s at Harvard, 1860’s in NY central park, because political change in Germany 1848 mass exodus of germans to US (the 48’ers 1848) and settle in indianoplis, milwakee bring turners and german gym. By 1870’s huge german pop. In seattle and dev. Own turn grind gym—germ. Gym. Carries on to present times

Question 16

. Swedish

Answer 16

The idea of physical training or gymnastical “systems”
By 1880’s have gymnastical systems that spread throughout Europe—each eventually come to US

• ling—has followers that come to Washington DC Baltimore area—1860’s, john hoplins starts doig Swedish gym. In 1880’s, 1890’s in boston had stall bars, Swedish box, aesthetic gym. Had trainer come

Question 17

English

Answer 17

The idea of physical training or gymnastical “systems”
By 1880’s have gymnastical systems that spread throughout Europe—each eventually come to US

• clias, MACLAREN most important—besides anthropometric, English system is electric, little bit of fencing, germ apparatus, weights, but mostly games and sports—rowing, cricket, running, football—exercises too
• English started to play games like with rowing as forms of exercises as part of gymnastical system
• Started out as informal games (no records, leagues)—very beginning of athlos, still scene as exercise for health

Question 18

• Sport–tradition of “manly” sports (Walker, British Manly Exercises . . ., Phila, 1836.)

Answer 18

o 1819 American Farmer by John S. Skinner on sports
o had whole sporting olio “collection of info” a column—horse racing, cock fighting, field sports
o same man starts our first sporting magazine in US the American turf register and sporting magazine in Baltimore –totally about sports but primarily about the “turf”=horse racing, and other materials and other sports
o The American shooter’s manual (our own book about hunting, shooting, dog training)
o Spirit of New York in 1830—horse back riding, fishing
o The new york sporting magazine—starting our own sporting literature
o 1950’s sport’s illustrated
o united states sporting magazine 1830’s
o amercian angler 1881

Question 19

Nationalism and emphasis on sports and games

Answer 19

Just went through war of independence—try to generate our own sporting scene and literature—immediately want to beat the British in sports
1896—revival of Olympic games—use of flags, medal counts
there is competition and athlos
college sports

Question 20

Round Hill School, Northampton, Mass.; 1823-34; Joseph Cogswell, George 
Bancroft, and Charles Beck

Answer 20

o Number 1
o Started by cogswell and George Bancroft whom traveled to Germany, Switzerland—found out about van fellenburg and pestenburg and Yann / german gym.—learn about schools, school curriculums and came back to US and started their own private school
o On bluff overlooking Hampton river in southern Mass.
o In 1826 they needed a gym—to look after physical well-being of boys not just mind
o Physical with moral education, plan to follow Yann
o Had a lot of money and tried to hire yann but got turned down, but hired one of his disciples Charles beck as faculty member to teach physical training at that school
o Fencing, climbing, vaulting, swimming—all german gymnastics or from chivalry
o Became school with full time teacher that adapts german system—boys mostly to go to college in north east of country
o Boys were 8-14 years old then college from 14-18 years
o Closes in 1834 because of economics but first good example

Question 21

Harvard and Charles Follen (1796-1840), 1826

Answer 21

o Germanic professor at Harvard realizes it would be good if boys had exercises—knew german gym.
o Not a requirement
o Set up gym in summer 1826 outside
• Other colleges and schools, 1820’s
o Yale, brown, amerst all set up exercise equipment of Germany for their undergrads 1826-1830’s
o Williams, darthmouth, all in main
o West point American military school late 1820’s
o Brought together physical and mental training
o Physical just as important as mental—emphasis is military and defense

Question 22

Boston gym and Francis Lieber (1800-1872), 1826

Answer 22

o German
o Boston like NY was one of our four largest cities—cities filled with brain workers not body filled with sedentary workers that sit at desks—made transitions from farming/rural life to city life—needed exercise
o Have series of private gyms started to be built in major eastern cities in 1820’s
o Boston wanted gym and tried to hire Yann but failed hired (Charles) disciple instead—came up with subscription gyms like 24 hour fitness
o Lieber put in swimming pool in Boston gym

Question 23

Catharine Beecher

Answer 23

(1800-1878), Hartford Female Seminary, 1824 and 
“calisthenics”

o This point in time we have first formal programs and interest in formal exercise for girls
o Beecher considered exercise for women just as important for men
o Main contributions were reforms in educational opportunities for girls and exercise opportunities/health of girls
o Family from lichfield whole family are reformers—sister Isabella major reformer for voting rights—sister harriet stowe pushing for slavery reform Uncle Tom’s Cabin—all borthers were minister—major reform family
o Started atleast 2 private schools for girls—the Hartford female seminary, and in Cincinnati, OH in western female institute –in both schools she introduced calisthetics
o First book on calisthetics in 1830 for schools, families, and health establishments—no equipment—table of contents had how to work all parts of body, and calisthenic halls (like gym)—book had illustrations—showed pantaloons for exercise clothes for women—use of dumb bells/bean bags, books on head
o Wrote letters to the people on health and happiness and physiology and calisthetics for schools and families in 1850’s—trying to get to everybody and suggesting these books in schools—put in her own schools
o German gym. Not just for boys, but for everybody—families and girls
o Illustration of military position as an exercise
o In book of health and happiness—wrote about general principles of women health—biggest pet peeves were corsets (designed to pull in waist and accentuate the breast like hour glass shape)—60-70 lb. of pressure—women would faint, problems breathing—said it was unnatural –had illustrations of what could happen to the organs/spine with corsets and not with corsets—said if you want to look like hour glass you need to exercise—part of her mission

Question 24

Theodore Weld

Answer 24

(1803-1895), Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary 
Institutions, 1831

o One of the other options—van fellenburg (4 educational theorists)—his things was not gym. Or physical exercises, but kids need to work—manual labor movement—then happens in US
o Weld is their field agent, went to NE areas of country and visit with private school head masters, principles encouraging them to adopt manual labor as part of their curriculum
o Attractive to educators because saw as something to help ids learn a skill not just fun and games—valuble to kids, can sell their stuff
o Got fair amount of support~150 literary institutions tried to adopt manual labor
o If the head masters liked it the students didn’t—too much work—first food fights and book burnings because of this movement—or student had money to pay someone else to do their work—started to decline quite quickly started in 1830’s and ended in 1850’s wasn’t popular with students
o By 1850’s had other alternatives to the scene—baseball, rowing, football

Question 25

Other educational institutions and individuals (e.g. Amherst College and Edward 
Hitchcock, Sr.)

Answer 25

o Other colleges start to incorporate some innovative things—Amherst in central MASS. 90 miles west of boston—very close to round hill school and hamptom river—close to smith college for girls all within 12 miles
o Edward Hitchcock senior—was a professor at Amherst in Chemistry and eventually becomes president of school—wrote book “lectures on diet, regimen, and employment”—lecture 6 Regimen from Hippocrates—exercise and its importance—has material on non-naturals, wrote because he’s concerned about students, had chapters on alcohol and drugs, dyspepsia (lectures on dyspepsia—upset stomach from eatcing wrong things, lack of sleep/exercise—common ailment of 19th centuary America)—had Galens, cheney, conarro, Hippocrates, and new term “physical education” 1830—not gym class

Question 26

Physicians as body trainers, 1830’s-1890’s

Answer 26

What gets it all started—birth of what Hitchcock mentioned “physical education” (keep in quotes b/c nothing to do with PE today, not gym class)
Have group of American physicians to bring the old non-natural tradition of medical gym. Into America and saying we need to incorporate a knowledge of the non-naturals into our American educational system
Physical education ~1830 used as term to differentiate mental/moral education—eduating you on body and how to keep it healthy—physical education was hygiene—laws of health
Given that exercise is what part of physical education—1/6 –physical education isn’t just exercise

Question 27

Charles Caldwell

Answer 27

M.D. (1772-1853), Thoughts on Physical Education . . ., Boston, 1834.

o Writes a book on physical education
o One of the more prominent students of American Hippocrates Benjamin rush at univ. Pennsylvania
o After got MD became head of school in Kentucky **look up
o Believed that physical training is a great compass if complete, it is the same as entire system of hygiene”—its all of the laws of health

Question 28

William Alcott

Answer 28

M.D. (1798-1859), “The Progress of Physical Education” (1826) and Confessions of a School Master, Massachusetts, (1839)

o Probably the most well known author of medical books in entire 19th century
o Got MD from Yale and settles in Boston
o Begins to write—becomes president of American physiology society
o Publishes articles on physical education
o Wrote book on vegetarianism and physiology and marriage
o Book on “confessions of a school master—education” in 1839
o Major American physician on his experiemtns running a private school—says that in his mind and his father’s mind that palying games and sports and taking a break from school is a waste of time—his opinion and what he was taught—but realized how ignorant he was—trained to think that play was folly rather than play was wisdom in children—taught that you wanted to become an adult as soon as possible—but my eyes are gradually opened, I saw that my pupils studied best when they had the most time for exercise—found that besides a recess of 10 mintues in the middle of the forenoon—needed atleast an hour at noon gradually learned that progress at school was better and was able to sit still—they might do more in half an hour than in an hour of pain
o Recess important in the school

Question 29

Oliver Wendell Holmes

Answer 29

M.D., Boston, MA, (1809-1894)

o other big name—boston
o Harvard MD
o Started giving lectures in 1850’s descrirbig the American men he saw in boston as black counted, stiff jointed, soft muscle, pasty complection—lack of vigor by itality , strength, endurance—pointing out british counterparts as being more healthy
o Suggested that we need to adopt sports and games like british counterparts to be health and look/feel better
o More nationalism when our American MDs are comparing us to british

Question 30

Elizabeth Blackwell

Answer 30

M.D., NY, NY (1821-1910), The Laws of Life, with Special 
Reference to the Physical Education of Girls, NY, (1852)

o First women to get MD in united states—she couldn’t get in anywhere “if you dress like a men and don’t tell anyone we’ll let you In”
o Geneva medical college in NY (most med schools were 2 years instead of 4)
o One of most well known degree in (1849) of all time
o Sets up clinic in NY
o Girls need to know about their bodies—need to follow the laws of health like boys
o 1860’s American civil war, the American physical education movement is big at the time—people starting to put into state school curriculum
o one of the founders of the women’s medical college and new york infirmary (some women but mostly men)

Question 31

Physicians and their specific training programs, 1860’s-1890’s

Answer 31

Once ground work has been layed—have non ex-military people but whole group of trained MD’s that come on board the physical education movement and start/invent their own physical training programs—all after civil war 1860’s and on –second era of the gym—finding new things to do in the gym, new gyms being built to accommodate things new things, new things are all with few exeptions are invented and popularized by MDs for health

Question 32

Dioclesian Lewis

Answer 32

M.D., Boston, MA, (1823-1886) and “light gymnastics”

o Referred to as “dio lewis”
o 1849 MD
o moved to boston same as Alcott, holmes, all knew each other
o starts gymnastics monthly and journal of physical culture in 1861
o unique because includes women
o really makes a name for himself with the book in early 1860’s (had a lot of editions) “the new gymnastics for men, women, and children”
o new gym. For everyone versus just men in german gym.
o Using American gym. Invented by American physician
o Illsutrations credits beecher in exercise attire
o Exercise system—known as light gym. Because not heavy—all equipment made out of light maple wood—indian clubs (look like wooden bowling pins)—dumb bells (light maple wood not resisitance training)
o Had rings to hold in the hands like gym.
o Wand—like wooden dowl like andre’s book on orthopedics
o Bean bags
o The athletic crown illustration-like beecher illustration for posture balancing book on head
o Every part of lewis’s book was with accompany of music (piano or organ) then you did your exercise
o Second book: weak lungs and how to make them strong in 1871—tuberculosis one og biggest ailmentss
o Thought if you strengthen the chest prevent the onset of consumption or tuberculosis—strengthing chest will help you cure it
o Had photographs—rings, wands, pantaloons, dumb bells from 1880’s and 1890’s—stall bars from Swedish—calisthetic hall with dumb bells and piano—bifurcated skirt (hardest thing to do was bicycle riding people died, women wore these skirts so they could ride a bicycle)—had indian clubs, stall bars, german equipment, exercise to music
o Adopted by women in elite colleges in east—the 7 sisters—group of reformed minded women—needed colleges just for women, smith (near round hill), casser, mount holio, welsely, Radcliff—still leading medical colleges in US—adopted Lewis’s gym. Really liked it—most men didn’t like it
o Book on digestion: our digestion on my jolly friend’s secret –on dyspepsia
o First to pair music with exercise

Question 33

George B. Windship

Answer 33

M.D., Roxbury, MA, (1834-1876) and “heavy gymnastics”

o Grandfather and father went to Harvard, third gen. Harvard grad (three generations) went to Harvard med
o Enter Harvard in 1854-1857 entered at 16 yo. 5 feet tall and weight 100 pounds—by time he graduated he exercised well—lift heavy weights—weight lifting
o After MD he opened up private medical practice in suburb in Boston called Roxbury—saw patients in front room and lift weights in back—known as Roxbury Hercules—turned to lifting heavy weights and believed in weight lifting—would put on demonstrations and lectures on physical culture and weight lifting
o Put on lectures on physical culture, lifting with his hands—had lifting yolk and standing up with weights
o Had 3 patents at US patent office—1. In 1865 the practical graduating dumb-bells (keep the same bar and interchange the weights themselves—major invention)
o 2. Atomespheric lifter and strength tester in 1872—had piston with hydraulic fluid with read out like diamometer—pushed down or pulled on pull and gave you a read out of pounds of pressure you were exerting—some modern equipment has hydraulics too
o 3. “Apparatus for physical” culture in 1873—8 people could workout on same time—had rowing machine, abars for pull ups, hanging—8 different stations—similar machine by herald zincan in 1957 “first multi station work out equipment” not true
o argued and gave speeches that strength and health were synonymous—the stronger you were the healthier you were—proved on himself—had article in 1860 said lifting if done properly is most strengthening and healthful exercise that could make you happy—had followers that developed strength gyms or lifting gyms—the lifting/strength cure—lifting gym in NY Baltimore and boston—really began to grow
o until September 12 1876 at 42 yo. Winship had massive stroke and died—leader of strength and health movement—people thought he did too much, should have known better—not moderation—way too strong “ruined his heart”
o strength movement then died as result of his premature death—beginning of another movement of strength as being detrimental to overall health and speed, flexibility, range of motion (because some people didn’t quit weight lifting—became a sport in itself)—argument was that they were muscle bound, constrained by their own muscles—believed this for awhile into ~1960’s
o in 1859 we had new president of amhurst college in central mass.

Question 34

Edward Hitchcock, Jr

Answer 34

M.D. (1828-1911), Amherst College, MA and “ecclectic” 
system

o Trained at Harvard
o No one thing has taken my attention than the health of my students
o Next year two students died in their dorm—14-16 yo going to college were dead
o Students died from rigors or undergraduate college life—didn’t follow non naturals, studied too hard, drugs/alcohol, not enough sleep
o Solution though from board of trustees thought to build a gym called the barrot gym, Benjamin barrot donated most of money cost about 10k dollars built for student health—needed someone to be in charge of it—hitchcock jr. just finished MD at Harvard—his father was a former president and chem. Prof. at Amherst
o Hired in 1860 and be new gymnasium director
o Had piano and light gymnastics, and german gymnastics with parallel bars
o 1880’s newer bigger gym called Pratt gym—hitchcock requires every student to excerise 4 times a week—also going outside playing games and sports on top of light and german gym.—started to do anthropomorphic measurements—students came into his office did didymometer tests—prescribed exercises
o give weekly lectures on health and hygiene
o had swimming pool—one of the most highly recommended things to do like guthsmuth and chivalry—no athlos though
o lectures on personal health given to freshman class
o was the college physician to look out for their health
o Amherst plan was then copied and replicated throughout other colleges, was the leader—the aaape in 1885 became their first president the next 12 presidents were all MDs showing th direction the organization was going with anthropomorphic measurements everything Hitchcock was doing

Question 35

Dudley A. Sargent

Answer 35

M.D. (1849-1924), Harvard College, MA and “machine 
gymnastics”

o Harvard followed suit of Hitchcock
o Mary heminway gave them several hundred thousands dollars to built to call hemminway gym
o Harvard had this advertisement: wanted a physician to be intelligent instructor and diagnose defects and prescribe health for our students
o Sargent answered the ad—just finished MD degree at Yale and was hired
o Became new gym. Director and followed pattern that Amherst had set
o Professor of physical training—full professor—run the gym and health of students
o Took antropometric measurements and prescribed exercises
o Used something unique –if theres a weak part in his measurements he will invent a machine that will improve that body part—like stretching machines, rowing, interchangible weights, dips “sargent machines” to develop certain machines—like leg press—sargent made leg presses
o Had finger machines for physical therapy with leather straps to put fingers in with wire over a pulley to lift your finger
o Wrote book on physical education
o Had exhibit of his machines in 1893 at word fair in Chicago—his machines began to be massed produced by company in rhode island and colleges were buying his machines
o “the typial college age male and female” statues scalped from scale with data from antropometric measurements mean—part of Harvard exhibit—asked people to stop and compare yourself—start to begin with height and weight charts—insurance companies jump on antropometric measures
o started to study athletes and measure athletes
o had lots of machines with wires/ropes and puleysn

Question 36

Swedish medical gymnastics or the “Movement Cure” –taylors book (Taylor M.D., Nissen, and 
Posse)

Answer 36

o Ling’s ideas are reborn in 1860’s in American
o George taylor was MD—talked about another example of exercise system started in Sweden now brought to this country—the Swedish system
o Two major proponents—hartvig nisson, and posse
o Nisson—comes from Sweden and Norway and relocates to D.C. area the Swedish system of educational gym. Book in 1880’s becomes viable option joining german, sargent, beecher
o Very little equipment, lunging, twisting, lifting legs
o Posse- Swedish comes to D.C. area—published book on school gym. Of Swedish system—reccomended exercising in the class room—didn’t need heavy equipment like german or dumb bells or indian clubs just exercises you could do yourself—became popular in US
• Edward Hartwell, M.D., Ph.D, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD and 
Boston, MA (1850-1922)
o From mass. Father was boston lawyer, mother was daughter of prof. of medicine at darthmout—went to mass. Prep school—ended up at Amherst as undergrad
o Went through all of hitchcock’s system and measurements, gym. Program 4 exercising a week and lectures
o Went to get phD in biology physiology at john Hopkins in Baltimore—and MD degree from Miami med. College in cinncinati OH
o First MD/PhD
o John Hopkins next year builds a gym—in heart of downtown Baltimore for health of students—needed director—hartwell is hired as faculty member as director of the gym
o Asks the board to buy sargent’s machines but quickly changes his mind—met nisson and posse and thought Swedish gym. Was better around 1885
o Word got out about hartwell and john Hopkins and were impressed—mary hemminway looking for someone to come to boston to head physical education program for her city—she convinced hartwell to leave professor rank and come to bsoton and become director of physical director of boston public schools in 1890’s to do Swedish gym. Nisson and posse’s books in schools—nisson and posse open their own school to teach teahcers for to teach physical education in 1890’s—became another option for exercise
o Similar things were happening at other colleges like Yale, darthmouth

Question 37

Sports for fun and reputation (Knauff, Athletics for “Physical Culture”, 1894

Answer 37

o Athlos/sports
o For physical culture—playing sports
o Illustrtation with two men about same age, one playing sports and one that didn’t—talked about cricket, baseball, shot put, lacrosse (learned from native americans), rowing, archery, women too—but not strenuous things—did archery
o Now we’re starting to talk about doing sports for physical culture and exercise

Question 38

Basketball revolutionizes the gymnasium –James Naismith, Springfield, MA, 1891

Answer 38

o YMCA in 1850’s and 60’s started to have gyms in 1860’s—in 1880’s the Y needed men with Christian virtures—hard time finding people and didn’t have money to hire MDs—started their own training school to produce gym. Directors for the YMCA—started in built college in springfield mass. In 1885 called the YMCA international training college—2 year college that young men went to learn to be gym . directors at YMCA all over the country
o Naismith—hired at the YMCA training college in 1891 as teacher—took a soccer ball and a peach basket in the gym. At training college and developed backet ball hoope 10 ft. up –gym also had wands, dio lewis’s light gym., parallel bars/horse, steps to walk way
o In 1891 invents new game of basketball (already had baseball and football)—has very little dribbling, a game of keep away, wrestling, and fighting and objective was to throw in basket but hardly got to do—scores usually 1-1, 2-1, 1-0 –spent most of the time fighting to get ball—then had to stop game and get ladder to get ball out of basket
o Wore same clothes as football players wore—padded pants, no head gear because fought over ball
o Became head basket ball coach at university of Kansas when leaving springfield and also got MD degree
o
o Hartwell in early 1900’s contracted by US government to write big report of state of physical education in the US, huge report—commented on number of gyms being built by early 1900s, including high schools and colleges and YMCA—says that it’s a really good thing because in his mind it ws for health of students—maybe Swedish gym. Or sergeants gym. Or piano—he was excited—but really was a cruel deception because the gyms were built for basketball instead
o Started to build gyms with high ceilings for basketball and bleachers to watch everyone else exercise—basketball courts turned into cages with nets/fence around bball courts so ball wouldn’t hit the audience or leave the court
o Had equipment catalogue in early 1900’s that gym. Directors had to look at things to buy—like quarter circle from sargent, and basket ball net (wasn’t cut out at the bottom yet)—most people bought a basketball hoop—physical education begins to shift to sports
o Indian clubs start to be used to play games instead to exercise with
o PE classes become places to play sports—volleyball, soccer, or indian clubs to play a game
o By early 1900’s sports and games become to be looked at good exercise just like any of the gym. Systems and because sports and games provided moral benefits not just physical—like sports builds character
o A lot of the gym. Systems fell in into disuse—not America, not fun or interesting by 1890’s we didn’t want to do german gym. Or Swedish gym. Or dance to piano music—guys wanted to fight/wrestle why bball was so popular/fun
o Realize that college sports are coming onto the scene with rowing, baseball, football, bball—alumni and students liked it
o Sports become more and more popular for various reason
o 1880’s the germ theory—understanding how people getting sick—new developments in surgery
o early 1900’s flexner’s report and looked at every med. School and showed which schools were bad and should be closed went from 130 med schools to 70—hard to get into med school now—if grad from med school you didn’t want to be gym director—but couldn’t anyway because you didn’t know anything about gym. And sports—went to emphasizing disease an cure (big shift in medicine itself)
o early 1900s high school/college looking for whole new group of teachers—got coaches—wanted different sports team—all hired coaches and then asked if theres anything they could teach—ended up teaching PE but taught sports (coaches and PE teachers were same person)—exercise wasn’t evenly distributed because some kids would be playing while other watched

Question 39

Immigration and influence of other countries (esp. England)

Answer 39

• Rowing in early 1800’s
• Oxford and Cambridge were competing by 1820
• Well established in England—athlos/competition—part of going to a prep school/college
• In US sports started out as student games—freshmen indoctrinations to college life—hallmark of being upper classmen at college was wearing a top hat/cane showed freshmen who were the bosses—most colleges had a freshmen hazing situation

Question 40

. Sports in education
• Student life
• “Fagging” and “Hazing”

Answer 40

• in frats and sororities—humiliation to freshmen by upperclassmen
• early as 1780’s bloody Monday at Harvard—freshmen forced to play seniors in game of football (soccer)—called bloody Monday because freshmen usually got beat up—was a competition
• Princeton—freshmen participated in cane spree—took a cane and put in the middle and all people fought over it—turned into mass fights with freshmen getting beat up—also happened at U MASS—form on indoctrination to college life

Question 41

Unorganized sports and clubs

Answer 41

o	Turned into unorganized sports clubs—some colleges used a rope pull (tug of war) over “frosh pond” at U MASS seniors would drag freshmen in pond
o	Informal sports
o	In college you did sports by class, no mixing
o	Yale used wrestling as contest to indoctrinate freshmen because seniors were bigger and older and could take them—“the college lion” over 6 feet tall and 200 lb beat every senior and was a freshmen, last time Yale used wrestling
o	Evolved into class rivalries ended doing things as a class and keeping separate from other classes—came clubs (extracurricular, run by students)—rowing, baseball, football, chess—carried down to prep schools as well—form the basis of intercollegiate sport teams

Question 42

“Muscular Christianity Movement” and the concept of “athleticism”

Answer 42

Comes the use of term athlete, athletism—like in panhellenic games—going to popularize athlos—does this in England first—english movement—in 1857 because of the two boy’s novels
• England and the boy’s novel (Kingsley and Hughes)
o Hughes: tom brown school days
o Kingsley: two years ago
o Both were boys novels written for young boys and published in 1857
o Kingsley was a minister, professor of history in England
o Highes was an attorney, policitican
o Both writing about a young boy
o Tom brown was hero in hughes brown
o Tom thurno hero in kingsley
o Theme of two books were similar
o Toms grow up in country with good family and character, healthy—leaves country to go to private school for boys—under headmaster—attends the chapel and plays sports—good at sports—theme of these books was young boys that play sports develop physical health and also develop their morals—sports build character—through sports these novelist argue young boys learn sportsmanship and trustworthiness and right and wrong, learn to support underdog—not afraid to fight for a cause—authors take toms through tribulations
o Saying that slogger Williams in a lot bigger than tom brown but doesn’t play sports, eats too much, fat—tom brown proceeds to stand up against the bigger guy and wins the fight
o Tom brown had the fgood character to defend the little guy through sports and church
o Slogger Williams didn’t possess that quality—bully
o Tom brown had physical capability to defeat someone bigger than him because he played sports
o Tom thurna in two years ago—in ship wreck—described as broad should deep chested good at all sports—wanted to save the people, had good morals and physicality to do it—juxtapose by poet—who ran away from the ship wreck—had no desire to save the people, and didn’t have physicaly capability
o Many book after come out with similar themes—saying that not gym. Systems that develop this, had to be sports and games because they taught you team work, discipline, etc.
o Private schools, high schools, colleges start to emulate what was going on in England—head masters of private schools hired coaches for different sports –just as important as math or latin—every boy in a sport and every sport for a boy—very important—statement: late 1800’s “the battle of waterlou (one of biggest battles in England) was won on the playing fields of eden (prep school)”—men able to defend their country because they played sports in school—idea that sports are good and good in schools
o Cornell U—in NY—started rowing club in 1870 named it the Thomas hughes rowing club in honor of his book school days sold more than 380000 copies and movies made about

Question 43

The rise of collegiate sports

• 1852-crew (Harvard and Yale)

Answer 43

o	yale rowing club 1870—uniforms were red, white and blue—nationalism
o	those rowing at Yale and Harvard had individual shells for each class—go out and polished the shells and row around, didn’t have a coach did it on their own, like a social event
o	in 1852—a railroad was finished (era of railroads) from NY city up through new England to new hampshire and right by lake winnepaseke –build resort there and owners or resort and railroad—want people to ride the railroad by owners came up with idea to invite Harvard and yale to have a rowing race at the lake (sculls—had professional rowing already very popular)—schools agree, free transportation for rowers and equipment—had 4 races for each class—haven’t gotten to point of making the best team—more of a social events—most people mark as beginning of intercollegiate sports—crew race, amongst each class in same school not Harvard against yale
o	caught on at other colleges like brown—they want to do sports too—oxford and cambrridge have been rowing since 1820’s

Question 44

The rise of collegiate sports

• 1859-baseball (Amherst and Williams)

Answer 44

• 1859-baseball (Amherst and Williams)
o amherst had rowing team in 1870, 1871 had team at in MAC
o college regatta MAC time 16:46 ingle side july 21 1871—won the college regatta—trophy illustration—example of nationalism because of eagle MAC versus Harvard, cornell, yale—immediately democratized intercollegiate sports—any college could compete with the ivy leagues (where it was born)—this victory caused more and more colleges to not just do rowing but other sports, everyone had a chance
o most college sports were dominated by ivy leagues because they had a longer tradition and had prep school boys that were already trained, public schools didn’t do as much yet
o 1890’s rowing crew was the dominate college sport attracted a lot of people—had pictures of rowing depicting them as healthy, and perfect
o 1859—first intercollegiate baseball game—amherst express newspaper against another private college Williams college with chess match too—evolved out of baseball club on each campus

Question 45

The rise of collegiate sports

• 1869-football (Princeton and Rutgers

Answer 45

o soccer in 1860’s
o round ball that you kicked and didn’t touch
o football clubs –like bloody Monday
o Princeton and Rutgers in new jersey decided that one football club would challenge the other in 1869
o The trend by 1870’s with MAC won college regate, each sport formed their own association—college rowing run by college rowing, same for football—made up of coaches, players of these respective teams—coaches usually upperclassmen of seniors or grad students—no older professional coach hired at any college—not sargent, Hitchcock—no MDs involvement in sport clubs—not what they did because they were extracurricular—gyms were part of curriculum and faculty
o Boys start to use the gym to train and practice during 1870’s but not under MDs all on their own

Question 46

• The formation of Associations in the 1870’s

* 1891 – basketball invented

Answer 46

o james Nesmith invents—at this time gyms being built to accommodate bball in 1895 volleyball was invented by willia g. morgan—YMCA director near springfield
o had football, baseball, rowing, volleyball (used same ball for bball—called minunet—used lawn tennis net and stretched across the gym and got higher as people got better), bball, track and field

Question 47

Rationale for college sports

Answer 47

• Sports and games win out over gymnastics
• By 20th century PE is sports
• Absolutely fun
• Old—go back to hazing and fagging
• England had been doing it—wanted to copy them
• The alumni—allegence to alma mater—read about it on sports page and identify with it
• Gait receipts –can make money from college sports—people come to see sports
• College administers and alumni liked It for free publicity for their college
• Sports and games weren’t just exercise like gym. Seen as character building
• “boosterism” invented by chambers of commerce in every college town to boost the image of your town—tiny towns can expand by thousand of people every weekend for sports –started in 1890’s big business

Question 48

Professional sports

Answer 48

• Rowing was professional sports by 1840’s—had champion rowers that made money winning races
• Distance runners—made money
• Baseball—cinncinati red stalkings
• Boxers
• Horse racing
• All on the scene in 1860’s 1870’s –no prof. foot ball or bball at this point though
• Princeton baseball team 1877
• Yale football—1888 uniforms were just pants with some horse hair stuffing but mainly made out of canvas—not protection from waist up—ball has changed to oblong ball, referred to yellow leather egg (like rugby ball), this yale team defeated their opponets 68 to 900, because team was just learning the game—Yale was much older player than 14-18 yo. Also knew about recruiting—wanted to win, not about character some of the Yale guys were 30+ yo
o Cricket—princeton had a team, other colleges have too—had a war of baseball being a national game and those trying to radicate cricket because wasn’t “American”—died out uQUICKLY IN US
o Bicycle clubs evolved to bicycle teams—was dangerous—penny farthings named from England little coin—no chains, went very fast, couldn’t stop—people often fell off by hitting into trees and branches or running into eachother—bicycle riding in medical literature—genitourinary ailments in literature from bicycle riding
o Track and field big in colleges because picks up from athlos—100 yard dash instead of stade—
o College bball team in 1900—had bear arms because played inside, had horse hair paints same as football players because bball was really rough
o UW founded in 1861 wanted rowingby 1880’s because seen as hallmark of big time university—to be seen as good as ivy’s had to have sports
o 1895—UW football team—no padding above waist except some could wear piece of leather on shoulder or elbow—ball still basically like rugby for kicking and carrying than passing—threw it underhand like a ladder—had shin guards—goes hand in hand with kicking game and leg protection—protection gear is optional, some had it and some didn’t—had nose guards that were optional only protection for anything on headso wouldn’t break your nose
o UW football in 1900—changes in protection padding—not to the point of helmets (made out of cardboard)
o UW baseball team in 1901
o UW denny field- out football stadium where burke museum now where we played football—mary grace Hutchinson head of female PE named after for Hutchinson hall, had pool (now closed because drama there now)—entered an era of construction and stadium building in every campus—most money from tax payers to accommodate a handful of elite athletes that use facility 6-7 days a week
o College sports begin on east coast—harvard, yale, Princeton smart because played games in NY city so they could attract attendance because most of their alumni lived there—pilgrimages from college towns to NYC for football games—big part was the alumni and supporters—supporting their alma mater (latin—fostering mother)—1900 football referred to gridiron because field divided into grid with rules to stand in different places to get first down—looked like rugby scrum—no helmets—had tons of spectators, like cages for bball around the field—rules were very different from now—rules changes came about from death and injury—later try to make the game safer

Question 49

Revival of modern Olympic Games (1896

Answer 49

o Right at pinnacle of college sports
o The US has very large Olympic team particulary in track and field—everyone of our team members were college or ex-college athletes

Question 50

Formation of NCAA (1905-06)

Answer 50

o Eradicates the traditional way college sports were run (by coaches and athletes and sport)—realized by this time that we can’t just have each sport running its own thing—too much fights/arguments—needed overriding body that looked out on all college sports
o One of reasons NCAA formed because president teddy Roosevelt was shocked by death rate of college football—needed to change or he would cancel the sport

Question 51

“Gymnastics era” to the “athletic era”

Answer 51

• Moved from gym. Programs to athletic era—when coaches are now physical education teachers, and not MDs
• Belief that sports are healthy—sports are exercise—sports good for soul and character—Christian muscle era—they’re fun
• Gym. And calesthics not fun—more like work
• Begin to see whole new array of medical implications with popularity of athlos

Question 52

Medical implications of athletic competition

Answer 52

• 1890’s to 1900’s
• first—muscular development, medical comm. Against weight lifting and those with heavy muscular bodies—thought would lead to premature death (winship)
• william blakey attorney at NYC rowe, wrote about strength of exercise—died a year after he stopped exercises—can’t just stop, need to keep it up
• a fear that ahlos would lead to lower resistance to infection—phyiological poverty in medical literature that athletes would be worn out and make them ore prone to tuberculosis and other diseases
• emphazema—the dangers of increase respiration rates and pulmonary blood flow—blood flow surged beyond normal limits during athletics
• kidney damage—protein in urine after competition—saw as sport induced kidney damage, weren’t functioning properly
• sexual dysfunction—some MDs associated athlos with decreased se drive—others worried about declining birth rate among our finest college students—some argued that developed poorly developed sex organs—athletes are sexual perverts
• nervousness—neurstehoria—today’s stress recognizable disease coming from working in sedentary conditions doing brain work—all part of urbanization—then attached to athlos suggesting sport competitions are nervous turmoil—fear of losing, struggle to win—athletes are more nervous than non-athletes
• heart—exertion beyond normal limits, sudden death during athletic competition—heart rates beyond one could imagine—all seen as negative aspects
• hate—broken bones, sprains, lost eyes, ears, death
• these are the 8 categories between 1880 and early 1900’s
• popularity of sports reached all time high by 1900-certain sports by their very nature, easy enter and early death attracted the medical comm. First—looked at certain sports in these three ways—first, guarded encouragement for someone, second, attempts to outright ban other sports or eliminate them, third, over support
II. Life Expectancy, Physical Characteristics, and Training Effects of Athletes, 1870’s-1910
What we see here, first epidemiological studies in America and England looking at athletes as a population—and what they find—all studies started out believing that athletes exceed normal limits—most of the subjects in these studies were college males in sports (guinea pigs)
A. Early life expectancy studies in England and U.S. in 1870’s
• Athletes are going to die earlier—belief going into these studies because they exceed normal limits—their lifespan would be shortened like winship and others
• Go against moderation of non-naturals, like cornaro
• Studies found just the opposite
• Rowers studies since 1820’s done in 1870’s done in interviews
• Found that oresman lived an average of 2 years longer than non-rowers—longitudinal study
• Strenuous athletics thought to be detrimental
• Study of university oresman – found and concluded that rowing strengthen the cardio system and made it efficient for rest of their lives
• Similar study in 1877 at Harvard—came up with same positive results of about 2 years longer

Question 53

Dudley A. Sargent, M.D.

Answer 53

“Physical Characteristics of the Athlete” Scribner’s (1887)

o At Harvard, antropometric measurements
o Satgent hd 2300 college students in it , 1700 never practiced athletics , 600 active athletes at Harvard or yale
o Published in 1887
o Used measurements –looked at strength and lung capacity
o First study of its kind
o Compared pictures of athletes versus non athletes—myths starting to be broken

Question 54

J. William White, M.D.

Answer 54

“A Physicians View of Exercise and Athletics” Lippincott’s (1887)

o Famous amercian Mds, and surgeons
o Many MDs not surgeons
o Late in 19th century—doing surgery at univer. Of penn. In philly
o Role was concerned with college sports and where they were headed and what they should/shouldn’t be
o Wrote article in 1887 published in lippincots
o His bias was he agreed with what sargent was doing at Harvard, mcclaren at oxford, still thought Mds should be doing measurements and symmetry of body—used rowing as example of his point—said rowers are mal developed, their back and hsoulders are dev. And expense of their legs, therefore rowing was not good exercise—need to do different exercises for well rounded symmetrical body
o Particulary concerned with high level athlos, said sports are ok because they’re exercise, but problem is the risk comes or danger comes when atheltes participate without proper training
o Another risk—comes from competitive element of athletics, play sports for fun and enjoyment and health and not for competition
o Danger in athletics was professionalism—get too specialized—get paid (hallmarks of revival of Olympics was Olympic athletes must be amateurs)—“on the other hand exercise if used properly could be just as important as the drugs of the pharmacopeia”—exercise if prescribed like a drug is in fact good medicine in 1887

Question 55

Eugene A. Darling, M.D.

Answer 55

“The Effects of Training” Boston Med. & Surg. Journal (1899)


o MD in boston looked at harvard rowers in 1890’s
o Journal is not NEJM (that and JAMA top journals)
o Long study, and long written study
o Study of the Harvard U crew—did physiological studies of severe training—5-8 miles long of rowing looking at over time 16 individual rowers, weight, temperature, size, and function of heart, kidneys, digestive system
o Found—problems with digestive systems (weak stomachs and diarrhea—due to diet and eating habits)—dicovery of proteins in 1890’s best source was meat (raw meat, red meat)
o Athletes would intake as much meat in the shortest amount of time—ate too much and fast, and ate wrong thing
o Over training—“staleness” common symptoms were lose of strength and endurance, nervousness, digestive distrubances—well known that nervous fatigue entirely distinct from muscle fatigue from prolonged anxiety and monotomy of work—anxiety of coming contest and mental strength of mastering skills—may lead ot condition of nervous exhaustion that contributes to over training or staleness
o Looked at heart and kidneys—physiological affects may approack unpleasantness and pathological conditions from training—was really worried about this
o Suggested we need competent supervision of athletes in training and in competition—(used to be student themselves or grad students, MDs were not in charge at this time)—finally gets MDs and gymnastes and athletic trainers into the picture later on

Question 56

Negative factors associated with athletics

• 1. “athletic heart” vs. “normal heart”

Answer 56

o x-ray didn’t become popular in use until 1820’s
o the heart because of athletes to med. Comm
o athletes appearance after running were stumbling “pained breathlessness” caught their attention
o athlete’s heart was a bad thing between this time period
o athlete’s heart were bigger—interpretted that result of dilatation—the breaking down of walls of the heart, enlarged stretched, producing a diseased heart, less efficient—saw as bad heart
o what was really happening—heart is a muscle, the larger hearts were result of hypertrophy which was good thing, often times mistaken
o post athletic decay—body changes after stopping exercise, thought the same thing happens to your heart—prone to disease and decay like other muscles (like blakey winship)—common belief
o slowly this myth was broken down

Question 57

R. Tait McKenzie, M.D.

Answer 57

1906 and 1912

o gym. Director like sargent
o univ. of penns.
o Sculpter of athletes
o Published two articles published in medical examiner “relation of athletics to longevity” 1906—found all athletes he studied lived longer because of their better cardiovascular system
o Final study in amerian journal of medical sciences on influence of exercise on the heart (key one)—says we were wrong about athletes heart—“the hour has arrived for complete reconsideration of whole question of exercise in realtion to the heart, the athletes’ heart is a desirable condition”
o Says—the athlete’s heart is a functionally superior pump rather than a liability—although athlete’s heart as a negative still persist for awhile
o President howard in Denver suffers heart attack—leading MD is summoned from boston to Denver in early 1950’s (paul Dudley white) leading cardiologist best known because road a bicycle everywhere he went—when examined the president, went totally counter everything at that time (was supposed to prescribe bed rest)—but told him to get up out of bed and start walking down the hall—made cardiac rehabilitation

Question 58

. The Debate Over Bicycling in the 1890’s

A. Early history and values in bicycling

Answer 58

• Came under vaious names, bone shakers, steel horses—all hurted, and dangerous some with no pedals or brakes
• Had roads with pot holes and rocks—bone shakers
• A lot of injuries
• By 1860’s we had velocepeds with pedals, no suspension, had to dismount to stop or try to stop pedals
• By 1880’s had penny farthings with high seats and hard to mount and dismount and ride—needed to climb a ladder or stool to drop down on seat—were tall and ran into tree limbs or signs
• Bicycle riding attracted attention of medical community—just recreational biking
• Thought to be good for exercise, for women and men, got you out into the country, good for socialization, clubs, bicycling was written as cure for consumption or tuberculosis
• Big problems from negative side

• Injuries inflicted
o There were schools were individuals went to learn how to ride a bicycle—some in barns, with stepping stools to mount the penny farthing
• Chronic ailments (e.g. “kyphosis bicyclistarum”)
o Ailment of skeleton—pennyfarthing more popular in england than America
o Hump back coming from excessive bike riding—elongation of legs but mal development of upper body
o “bicycle face, hands, feet”
o bicycle hernia
o bicycle sore throat from breathing through your mouth as you road your bicycle
• Major medical concerns
o Bicycle heart before mckenzie
o Bicycle freight
o Genito-urinary—injury from bicycle riding—bladder, uterus, testicles
o Major taylor—black athlos bike rider
o Athlos side of bike racing (sprint, distance races)
o Studies done on bikes, bicycle riders to make it more safe
C. New equipment to deal with injuries
• Air filled tires, softer, called blume tires when rubber invented
• Chain used to connect gears together with safety brake—back pedal to put on brake—hand brakes weren’t well developed well enough
• Experimented with suspension systems, bicycle saddles and seats—what will give the best support—recognized right away that male and female anatomy are different, should have different saddles and seats for both
• 1880’s bicycle riding most popular—had publications called the wheelman—bikes were expensive back then ~$50-80 , lower classes rented bikes in cities
• became acceptable among women—new found freedom, meet men, socialize, have fun, have fresh air—bifacted skirts for women, bloomers for biking—books for ladies biking and images of women biking
D. Special concerns for women
• Positive
o
• Negative
o Issues of pelvis and pelic tone—fallen uterus—believed that mounting and dismounting of bike and bouncing of bike—wouldn’t be able to produce children—in 1890’s still huge fear of masturbation—women thought to ride for self pleasure—wasn’t good
o Men mountain bikers (today’s newpaper) lower sperm count, and quality, infertility—come up with better suspensions, protection

Question 59

Collegiate Football and Brutality, 1890’s-1920’s

Answer 59

Really wasn’t any pro football at the time or high school football—most college sports eventually perculate down to high school, middle school, elementary, little league, etc.
Football referred to pig skin mania, football craze—came out the injury and danger, like bloody Monday—song made about football and its dangers/injuries by 1890’s song
Football players expected to get injured or hurt
School was neglected—by players and student spectators—exposed to professionalism getting money to play, colleges making money off of gate receipts off the players—academic life was suffering, a lot of students left campus to see the games in NYC (for biggest attendance and alumni lived, not on college campuses)

Question 60

Attacks on football in 1890’s and its popularity

Answer 60

• “ friendly game of football” illustration
• “mass power play” where a lot injuries came from, similar to a “flying wedge” where players ran down the field together—what a typical running play would look like
• Princeton popularized the flying wedge—by 1890 college football had surpassed crew
• Wesleyan professor/faculty advisor hired as football coach—thought that faculty advisor (didn’t know anything about football –woodroll Wilson—president of US) to provide adult leadership for players
• Illustration of typical football game with game going on with player laying unconscious –had no protective equipment in 1890’s—student in picture “water boy” comes over—extent of medical attention
• Illustration of football players with one player being a skeleton—idea that death was surely the outcome of college football
• While this all going on, still war going on with people saying football is morally uplifting (moral Christianity movement)—producer of strength and manliness, get a tradition from college football that exist today which is thanksgiving football games—before NCAA formed governing for each sport had its own governing body—in 1876 formation of intercollegiate football association decided to put on big football at NY’s polo grounds on thanksgiving day—attracted 40,000 people
• N herald reported that thanksgiving is no longer about thanksgiving but about college football in mid 1890’s—estimate over 120,000 football players somewhere in the US played a game of football—equals to about 5000 different football games on thanksgiving alone
• Can go anywhere in US now a days for college football—1900 apple cup
• Groups of people trying to eliminate football period—but didn’t work, tried to change the rules, some of that worked—tried changing the equipment which worked a lot
• Mass state legislature 1894 tried to ban football because too much injuries
• A lot of modifications going on

Question 61

Banning football

Answer 61

o Worry that players might get hurt
o 1894 Yale Harvard game (tradition games) 7 of 22 players were injured to point where they couldn’t play any longer—was 11 on 11—you never left the field—same game—the yale captain broke collar bone of Harvard player as he jumped on him—practicing the take out of the best player on the other team to have better chane of winning
o 1897 virginia and Georgia—one of Georgia players died after hours after game because of concussion—game played in Atlanta, city of Atlanta tried to ban college football, but governor vetoed it
o 1902 12 college students killed playing football
o purdue and notre dame 5 players carried off field in 1902—journal of medical assoc. start to see medicine’s interest in football—article: the football mortality—MDs outraged that 12 students had been killed, casualities (injuries and deaths)—students being cripples—argued for rule changes—one student stabbed in back with a knife—dirty work in football
o 1904—21 students killed, 296 injured to point couldn’t play anymore, 1 northwestern player had ear kicked off, repeated kicking, many others suffering from softening of the brain
o in early 1905: journal of American medical assoc. article: football and its dangers—only real football is bone breaking, seams to have a hold—stand point of educator: not much good in football—players aren’t bonified students, don’t study, skipped classes—the rest of the student skips schools to go to games—JAMA says football does nothing to benefit physical training—men on teams are very one that nature has endowed with physical capability—but average student gets their exercise from bleachers in 1905—all be better off if football were eliminated

Question 62

Football equipment

Answer 62

o No equipment initially, no more we’ve seen in bball
o Going into 1890’s start to see shin guards, padding on shoulders (all optional), nose protection, canvas stuffed with horse hair pants, some shirts may have leather patches on elbow
o Article from NY journal in 1897 showing advancements in head gear—protecting the nose and ears to prevent cauliflower ear and nose injuries not, brain injuries or concussions—article has word gladiators
o More of protection for aesthetics, no protection for eyes, some had mouth protector
o Football armor—“he have war/battle”—bad equipment, but good that its developing
o 1909 from victor company made protective equipment for shoulders, elbows, knees, face mask—made out of rubber heavy

Question 63

Football rules

Answer 63

o Change the rules to become safer game
o Outlaw the flying wedge was first thing, and mass destruction plays
o 2nd: shorten the length of the game (was originally 90 min down to 70 min)—players weren’t leaving the field, most injuries happen at end of the game
o 3rd: divided the time into halves and quarters, gave chunks of time for rest and recover
o 1906-1910 start a gridiron, different things allowed in different grids—had to advance in certain grids to get first down
o by 1920’s we see what looks like a helmet, but not required most players didn’t wear them—made out of leather or pressed cardboard
o didn’t eliminate sport altogether—had become so popular

Question 64

President Theodore Roosevelt intervenes and NCAA formed, 1905

Answer 64

• Big football fan
• Preached the strenuous life—was a boxer, wrestler, hunter
• Sitting at the white house on Sunday morning—opened first page of newspaper in D.C. with face of football player just the day before played U PENN and had been eliminated from the game—face was smashed, nose was broken, eyes swollen, teddy said enough is enough
• Quoted shortly after “football is on trial, because I believe in the game, I want to do all ic an to save so I call you all down here if you all won’t agree to abide by sprit and rules of the game”—sent personal directive to MDs and football coaches at leading ivy league schools and military academies to come to white house to meet
• Illustration “stop playing brutal football” with teddy and all mascots of all teams—threaten he would eliminate college football if things didn’t change
• Great walter camp—football coach at yale—met with president and considered and honorable consideration to change way football is played—pledged themselves to their obligation
• One of MDs though football was brutal thing that is called a sport
• Because of teddy we have at least the beginning of reform of college sports—most agree that it was his ultimatum that changed and formed the NCAA
• 1906 game down to 60 min, hurling eliminated, mass plays eliminated, three chances to get 10 yards in every grid or give up the ball

Question 65

Harvard studies in 1906 and 1909 by Edward H. Nichols, M.D. in Boston Medical 
and Surgical Journal

Answer 65

“The Physical Aspect of American Football” and “Football Injuries” 1909—mainstream stuff

Has one of first team MDs—became Harvard team MD in 1904—the team MD was at this time called the team surgeon, but didn’t really do surgery—all of them were team surgeon for football—other teams didn’t really have someone to work with them on daily basis
• Nichols wrote articles—1906: “all football teams need a team surgeon”—began argument for sports medicine specialty –players were too excessive and took chances—wanted to win—saying that laying out the case that sports medicine and sport medicine doctors have to be different, they deal with different population—found the number and severity of permanent injuries are even more than he imagined—football teams need constant medical supervision and the conditions under the game is played should be modified to lower the occurrence of injury
o Protective equipment
• 1909 article drawing made by Nichol—proposed that all football players should be required to wear gear—head gear, pads for collar bone and shoulders, over anterior superior spine, and thigh guards, braced shoes, knees and thighs
o Trainers
o “Team Surgeons”
o Rule revisions

• Allow no cripples to play
• No man should play to point of exhaustion
• 1906 article argued for team surgeons—1909 need care of clever and intelligent trainer—the revival of gymnastes
• now at starting to put together the package of coach, trainer, team physician
• grid of football is another rule change
• 1909 there were 30 deaths in football
• 1910 more rule changes: flying tackles eliminated, pulling the runners (like slingshot), time divided into 4 15 min quarters, required 7 men line stationary at hike of the ball

Question 66

Notre Dame vs. Army, October 30, 1913

Answer 66

o army had been dominate power in footballup until 1913, not many people have heard of small Indiana school notre dame, army filled open date with notre dame and showed at west point to play the game—NY times wrote in advance about the game saying the visitors looked large but army would have a big score and probably get it easily
o unknown to army and a lot of people, notre dame had been practicing different type of football—nute Rodney undergrad at notre dame that day as running back, QT was dorias—both players used a play/strategy to get touch down without using any violent methods—shows the first pass—the beginning of a more open game of football—game ended as reported as stunning defeat 35 to 13—in the paper the NY times “the westerners flashed the most sensational football seen in the east—baffling the cadets with a style of open play—30 yards at a clip the eastern gridiron had not seen passin”—ball referred to leather yellow egg
o teams want to win, notre dame beat army (power house) by playing differently—the ball quickly changes shape to look like a missle/torpedo which can be better used for a forward pass—signals the triumph of a new open game of football different from the battering ram style that we were used to
o the next week army won its game because used forward pass, other teams started passing too—almost by accident the game of football changed with open style—reduced injuries and deaths in football, but not totally

Question 67

The Control of Football Injuries, (1933) by Marvin “Mal” Stevens, M.D.

Answer 67

football coach, and president of American football coach’s association at yale and Winthrop Phelps, M.D.’

• Both MDs
• Stevens and Winthrop in position to make big difference with their book—in 1931 we have some high school football, 50 college deaths
• 1932 43 college deaths
• 1933 book comes out—unique—actually viewed films of football games, attended football practices, both involved in football anyway—aware that high school kids were playing football—started to break things down, where the injuries were (hips, thighs, knees, head)—occurred from blocking, plunging, tackling, occurred where and when (later in the game—discovered that more injuries occur in practice)—
• sugar bowl 1941—bowl games arise—so many bowl games that you can place 4th or 5th in your league and still play in bowl game
• 1940’s have hard helmets made out of plastic however don’t have face guard broken noses still common—1980 trainer of right team MD on left injured player in center with face mask
• TIME magazine in 2010 “the most dangerous game”—how to fix it—change the rules, change the equipment, don’t let young kids play, change the culture of football—last sentence “the game’s violence will continue because we like it, our gladiatorial lust, 16th centuries after the romans, the greater the hit the greater the roar” –now we have MMA, and people beating in cages
• Letter to editor seattle times 1995—UW supporter banned womens bball written by MD from Kirkland WA “two key players suffer knee injuries in games—coach pushes girl too hard, tire and fatigue—women far more susceptible to knee injuries—no money in womens sport or support—should eliminate competitive bball shredding knees for no reason”

VI. The Question of Women and Basketball, 1890’s-1970’s
A. Early history and impact of Senda Berenson, Smith College (Northampton, MA)
• Hired at smith college to be director of gym.
• All womens elite college
• Hired in 1892—in 1891 bball was invented
• Introduced bball to the girls for physical exercise—such an amazing thing that guys found out about it and rushed to the gym to watch—forcing her to post a sign to ask men to not watch
• Within a few years in 1896 UCAL berkely playing standford in womens college bball—same year UW played Ellensburg normal school in womens school (central Washington) –quickly bball for women was spreading becoming popular
• But at smith most of bball played for women were played class by class and basket was still tied
• Bball was the new craze for athletic women
• Quickly women were getting hurt and women were not supposed to get hurt—scratches, bruises, pelvic disturbances, dislocated shoulders, bruising of the breast, falling uterus—right away the fear was women can’t play bball as bball—we need something different, different girl rules for girls—began to modify the game quickly
• Girls played with 9 on the team not 5, because divided the court in equal thirds—because no girl that could run the length of bball court had to stay in section
• After player hurt her shoulder—article said the gladiators appear and one is dying—bearinson said a certain amount of roughness maniliness in our men, but not for our women
• Becomes 1899 first president of first womens bball rules association