Rhetorical Terms

Question 1

Define:

allegory

Answer 1

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

Question 2

Define:

alliteration

Answer 2

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Question 3

Define:

allusion

Answer 3

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

Question 4

Define:

ambiguity

Answer 4

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Question 5

Define:

analogy

Answer 5

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Question 6

Define:

antecedent

Answer 6

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example follows:
“But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted.”
The antecedent of “it” (bolded) is…? [answer: “all truth”]

Question 7

Define:

antithesis

Answer 7

the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.

Question 8

Define:

amorphism

Answer 8

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.

Question 9

Define:

apostrophe

Answer 9

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional
intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself: “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.

Question 10

Define:

atmosphere

Answer 10

The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

Question 11

Define:

caricature

Answer 11

a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person’s distinctive physical features or other characteristics.

Question 12

Define:

clause

Answer 12

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

Question 13

Define:

colloquial/colloquialism

Answer 13

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Question 14

Define:

conceit

Answer 14

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Question 15

Define:

connotation

Answer 15

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

Question 16

Define:

denotation

Answer 16

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)

Question 17

Define:

diction

Answer 17

Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style.

Question 18

Define:

didactic

Answer 18

From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

Question 19

Define:

euphemism

Answer 19

From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.

Question 20

Define:

extended metaphor

Answer 20

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Question 21

Define:

figurative language

Answer 21

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

Question 22

Define:

figure of speech

Answer 22

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

Question 23

Define:

generic conventions

Answer 23

This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention.

Question 24

Define:

genre

Answer 24

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry.

Question 25

# Define: homily

Answer 25

This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Question 26

# Define: hyperbole

Answer 26

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.”) Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is understatement.

Question 27

# Define: imagery

Answer 27

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

Question 28

# Define: inference/infer

Answer 28

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation – negative or positive – of the choices.

Question 29

# Define: invective

Answer 29

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff “this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.”)

Question 30

# Define: irony/ironic

Answer 30

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language: (1) verbal irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) meaning (2) situational irony – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen (3) dramatic irony – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

Question 31

# Define: litotes (pronounced almost like “little tee”)

Answer 31

a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain” (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).

Question 32

# Define: loose sentence/non-periodic sentence

Answer 32

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence. Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays. Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.

Question 33

# Define: metaphor

Answer 33

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

Question 34

# Define: metonymy

Answer 34

(mĕtŏn′ ĭmē) A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in *As You Like It*: “doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat.” The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.

Question 35

# Define: mood

Answer 35

The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

Question 36

# Define: narrative

Answer 36

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

Question 37

# Define: onomatopeia

Answer 37

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

Question 38

# Define: oxymoron

Answer 38

From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.

Question 39

# Define: paradox

Answer 39

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....”)

Question 40

# Define: parallelism

Answer 40

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ *Tale of Two Cities* is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity....”) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

Question 41

# Define: anaphora

Answer 41

A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech (1963).

Question 42

# Define: parody

Answer 42

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of the original.

Question 43

# Define: pedantic

Answer 43

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the sake of using big words).

Question 44

# Define: periodic sentence

Answer 44

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)

Question 45

# Define: personification

Answer 45

A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

Question 46

# Define: point of view

Answer 46

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. (1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character. (2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude.

Question 47

# Define: prose

Answer 47

one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

Question 48

# Define: repitition

Answer 48

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

Question 49

# Define: rhetoric

Answer 49

From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Question 50

# Define: rhetorical modes

Answer 50

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as “modes of discourse”) are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional an subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.

Question 51

# Define: sarcasm

Answer 51

From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

Question 52

# Define: satire

Answer 52

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Some modern satirists include Joseph Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat’s Cradle, Player Piano).

Question 53

# Define: semantics

Answer 53

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Question 54

# Define: style

Answer 54

The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors’ styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’s purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist movement.

Question 55

# Define: subject complement

Answer 55

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below: (1) the predicate nominative – a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts (2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

Question 56

# Define: subordinate clause

Answer 56

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that. Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers. underlined phrase = subordinate clause

Question 57

# Define: syllogism

Answer 57

From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second called “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).

Question 58

# Define: symbol/symbolism

Answer 58

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories: (1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers). (3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

Question 59

# Define: synechdoche

Answer 59

a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to the violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as “the strings.” \*\*Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as “the crown” or the President as “The White House.”

Question 60

# Define: synesthesia

Answer 60

when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image. Red Hot Chili Peppers’ song title,“Taste the Pain,” is an example.

Question 61

# Define: syntax

Answer 61

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiplechoice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

Question 62

# Define: theme

Answer 62

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

Question 63

# Define: thesis

Answer 63

In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.

Question 64

# Define: tone

Answer 64

Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, somber, etc.

Question 65

# Define: transition

Answer 65

A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.

Question 66

# Define: understatement

Answer 66

the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Example: Jonathan Swift’s *A Tale of a Tub*: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.”

Question 67

# Define: wit

Answer 67

in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

Question 68

# Define: ad hominem fallacy

Answer 68

## Footnote (Latin for "to the man") a fallacy of logic in which a person's character or motive is attacked instead of that person's argument.

Question 69

# Define: ad populum fallacy

Answer 69

## Footnote (Latin for "to the crowd") a fallacy of logic in which the widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make it true or right; e.g. "The Escort is the most widely sold car in the world; therefore, it must be the best."

Question 70

# Define: anecdote

Answer 70

## Footnote a short entertaining account of some happening, frequently personal or biographical.

Question 71

# Define: anticlimax

Answer 71

## Footnote a sudden drop from the dignified or important in thought or expression to the commonplace or trivial, often for humorous effect.

Question 72

# Define: appeal to authority

Answer 72

## Footnote citation of information from people recognized for their special knowledge of a subject for the purpose of strengthening a speaker or writer's arguments.

Question 73

# Define: argumentation

Answer 73

## Footnote exploration of a problem by investigating all sides of it; persuasion through reason.

Question 74

# Define: begging the question

Answer 74

## Footnote a fallacy of logical argument that assumes as true the very thing that one is trying to prove; e.g. 1. The Bible is the infallible word of God. 2. The Bible says that God exists. Therefore, 3. God exists.

Question 75

# Define: cause and effect

Answer 75

## Footnote examination of the causes and/or effects of a situation or phenomenon; e.g. Essay topics such as "How did the incumbent mayor lose the election?" or "What causes obesity?" are well suited to cause and effect exposition.

Question 76

# Define: chronological ordering

Answer 76

## Footnote arrangement in the order in which things occur; may move from past to present or in reverse chronological order, from present to past.

Question 77

# Define: classification as a means of ordering

Answer 77

## Footnote arrangement of objects according to class; e.g. media classified as print, television, and radio.

Question 78

# Define: damning with faint praise

Answer 78

## Footnote intentional use of a positive statement that has a negative implication; e.g. "Your new hairdo is so...interesting.

Question 79

# Define: deduction (deductive reasoning)

Answer 79

## Footnote a form of reasoning that begins with a generalization, then applies the generalization to a specific case or cases; opposite to induction. (see syllogism)

Question 80

# Define: digression

Answer 80

## Footnote a temporary departure from the main subject in speaking or writing.

Question 81

# Define: ellipsis

Answer 81

## Footnote 1. In grammar, the omission of a word or words necessary for complete construction but understood in context. E.g. "If (it is) possible, (you) come early." 2. The sign (...) that something has been left out of a quotation. "To be or not...that is the question."

Question 82

# Define: expository writing

Answer 82

## Footnote writing that explains or analyzes.

Question 83

# Define: false dilemma

Answer 83

## Footnote a fallacy of logical argument which is committed when too few of the available alternatives are considered, and all but one are assessed and deemed impossible or unacceptable; e.g. A father speaking to his son says, "Are you going to go to college and make something of yourself, or are you going to end up being an unemployable bum like me?" The dilemma is the son's supposed choice limitation: either he goes to college or he will be a bum. The dilemma is false, because the alternative of not going to college but still being employable has not been considered.

Question 84

# Define: induction (inductive reasoning)

Answer 84

## Footnote a form of reasoning which works from a body of fact to the formulation of a generalization; opposite to deduction; frequently used as the principal form of reasoning in science and history.

Question 85

# Define: inverted syntax

Answer 85

## Footnote reversing the normal word order of a sentence; e.g. "Whose woods these are I think I know." Robert Frost

Question 86

# Define: non sequitur

Answer 86

## Footnote a statement that does not follow logically from what preceded it.

Question 87

# Define: order of importance

Answer 87

## Footnote a method of organizing a paper according to the relative significance of the subtopics.

Question 88

# Define: parable

Answer 88

## Footnote a short story from which a lesson may be drawn; Christ used the parable to teach his followers moral truths. The parable of the Sower and the Good Samaritan are examples of his parables.

Question 89

# Define: personfication

Answer 89

## Footnote a figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstract concept is endowed with human attributes; e.g. the hand of fate.

Question 90

# Define: persuasion

Answer 90

## Footnote taking a single position for the purpose of getting others to accept that position; may appeal to emotion or reason.

Question 91

# Define: post hoc fallacy

Answer 91

## Footnote (from the Latin: post hoc, ergo propter hoc meaning "after this, therefore because of this.") This fallacy of logic occurs when the writer assume that an incident that precedes another is the cause of the second incident. For example: "Governor X began his first term in January. Three months later, the state suffered severe economic depression. Therefore, Governor X cause the state's depression." The chronological order of events does not establish a cause-effect relationship.

Question 92

# Define: rhetorical question

Answer 92

## Footnote a question asked for rhetorical effect to emphasize a point, no answer being expected; e.g. "Robert, is this any way to speak to your mother?"

Question 93

# Define: simile

Answer 93

## Footnote a figure of speech involving a comparison using like or as; e.g. "O my love is like a red, red rose." Robert Burns

Question 94

# Define: spatial ordering

Answer 94

## Footnote organization of information using spatial cues such as top to bottom, left to right, etc.

Question 95

# Define: the rhetorical triangle

Answer 95

The rhetorical triangle is a diagram showing the relations of writer or speaker, reader or listener, and text in a rhetorical situation. This information is often displayed in a triangle; hence, the rhetorical triangle.