Rhetorical Handbook Flashcards
Connotation
An idea/meaning associated with a word or thing
E.g. Ideas associated with gold are greed and luxury
Denotation
The literal meaning of a word
E.g. Gold is a yellow, ductile element
Monosyllabic Diction
One syllable
E.g. Cats eat meat
Polysyllabic Diction
More than one syllable
E.g. Felines are carnivorous
Literal Language
Words denote exactly what they mean
E.g. The woods are big.
Figurative Language
Words suggest additional layers of meaning using figures of speech
E.g. He was as tall as a tree.
Jargon
The language of a specialized trade profession/group
E.g. Idiopathic hypersomnia (medical jargon)
Colloquialism
Words/expressions that belong to a certain geographic location/language
E.g. This lobstah is wicked good. (Boston)
Alliteration
The recurrence of initial consonant sounds
E.g. boiling bubbles
Onomatopoeia
The use of words in their pronunciation suggest their meaning
E.g. Hiss, Murmur, Pop
Basic Syntax
Subject + Verb + Object
E.g. Mary likes pizza.
Interrupted Sentence
A sentence that is interrupted by a parenthetical aside
Inverted Syntax
Begin with a part of speech other than the subject. Used to either create suspense or connect ideas between sentences more clearly
E.g. In the forest ran the deer.
Listing
A sentence with multiple phrases that create a list
E.g. Never in his life, nor as a son, nor as a parent
Cumulative/loose sentence
Sentence whose main clause is at the beginning and then builds through at least three parallel elements
E.g. She holds me in strong arms, arms that have chopped cotton, dismembered trees, scattered corn for chickens, cradled infants, shaken the daylights out of half-grown upstart teenagers.
Periodic Sentence
Sentence that begins with at least three parallel elements and the main clause is at the end to build a climax
E.g. But if life hardly seems worth living, if liberty is used for subhuman purposes, if the pursuers of happiness know nothing about the nature of their quarry or the elemental techniques of hunting, these Constitutional rights will not be very meaningful.
Repetition
Repeating the same word/phrase to add emphasis or make a point
E.g. Peace is great, peace is amazing, peace is wonderful.
Parallel Sentence Structure, General Info
Using the same pattern of words/phrases/clauses to show that two or more ideas have equal weight
E.g. Mary likes hiking, swimming, and biking.
Parallel Structure, specialized (antithesis)
Contrast of ideas/words in a parallel construction
E.g. “That’s one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.”
Parallel Structure, specialized (chiasmus)
A crossing parallelism, where the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced by the first part, only in reverse order
E.g. “Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country.”
Parallel structure (balanced)
Expressing parallel or like ideas - often compound
E.g. The government is of the people; the government is for the people.
Parallel Structure, specialized (Anaphora)
Repetition of a word/phrase at the beginning of successive phrases/clauses
E.g. Worried about ________, worried about ____________, worried about ____________
Declarative Sentence
Declares or states something
E.g. I will go to the dance.
Imperative Sentence
Commands, requests, instructs
E.g. Come here right now.
Exclamatory Sentence
Expresses strong emotion
E.g. I hope we will never again undergo such an ordeal!
Interrogative Sentence
Interrogates - asks a question
E.g. Who was the contestant most recently fired by The Donald?
Rhetorical Question
A question posed by the speaker not to seek an answer by affirm/deny a point simply by asking a question about it
E.g. “. . . For if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on? –Marcus Aurelius
Simple Sentences
Contains at least one sentence and predicate; can stand alone b/c it is a complete thought
E.g. Tom and Phil made pizza.
Compound Sentence
Contains two or more independent clauses
E.g. We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father’s birthday party.
Complex Sentence
Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
E.g. Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
Compound-Complex Sentence
Contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
E.g. After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he was really surprised.
Ellipsis
A rhetorical strategy in which one or more words are understood to be omitted.
E.g. John forgives Mary and Mary, John.
Asyndeton
The omission of a conjunction from a list.
E.g. “We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural
Polysyndeton
The use of a conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, and is thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton.
E.g. “[He] pursues his way, / And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.”
–John Milton
Active Voice
Active: Subject of the sentence is performing or causing the action rather than a state of being
E.g. Dorinne describes Tartuffe as foolish.
Passive Voice
Passive: Subject is the object of the action or the effect of the verb
E.g. Tartuffe is described as foolish by Dorinne.
Parenthetical Aside
Consists of a word, phrase, or whole sentence inserted as an aside in the middle of another sentence
E.g. Our leader—a fearless man whom we all respect–was hiding in the library.
Colon
: Used to divide distinct but related sentence components such as clauses in which the second elaborates on the first, or to introduce a list, quotation, or speech
E.g. “I walked close to the left wall when I entered, but it was empty: just the stairs curving up into shadows.”
Semi-Colon
; Connects two independent parts of a sentence
E.g. The sun lit up the wall; I shielded my eyes from the glare.
Dashes
— used to indicate a sudden break in thought
E.g. “Except for the Marabar Caves—and they are twenty miles off—the city of Chandrapore presents nothing extraordinary.”
Tone
The writer’s attitude toward his reader and his subject; his mood or moral view.
E.g. Formal, informal, playful, non-judgemental, etc.
Tone Shift
A general term in linguistics for any slight alteration in a word’s meaning, or the creation of an entirely new words by changing the use of an expression
E.g. No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the House. But different men often see the same subject in different lights;
Allegory
A form of extended metaphor in which objects and persons in a narrative are equated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself
E.g. The Lorax
Autobiography
The biography of a person written by that person
Biography
An account of a person’s life as written or told by another
Chronicle
An extended account of historical events without interpretation or comment.
Diary
A daily written record of (usually personal) experiences and observations.
Essay
A short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the personal view of the author; analytic or interpretive.
Fiction
A literary work based on the imagination and not necessarily on fact
Memoir
Autobiographical narrative that focuses on personal experience, intimacy, and emotional truth.
Non-Fiction
A work that draws its information from history or fact, rather than the imagination.
Prose
Writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to the patterns of everyday speech.
E.g. Any fiction or nonfiction is prose if not written in a poetic form.
Satire
A literary work which exposes and ridicules human vices or folly.
Sermon
An oration by a prophet or member of the clergy.
Stream-of-Consciousness
A technique that records the multifarious thoughts and feelings of a character without regard to logical or narrative sequences.
E.g. Can listen or read the character’s inner thoughts
Aphorism
A brief statement that expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation.
E.g. “The book of Nature is the book of Fate”
“So far as a man thinks, he is free.”
Cliche
Negative connotation of lacking originality.
E.g. –It was a dark and stormy night (literary)
Imagery
The author’s use of the five senses to create images for the reader.
Invective
Abuse (tongue-lashing, diatribe, condemnation). Can provide an emotional release for the reader or reinforce an already-existing attitude. Can also be humorous.
E.g. Youre a mean one, Mr. Grinch/You really are a heel,
Youre as cuddly as a cactus, youre as charming as an eel, Mr. Grinch/Youre a bad banana with a greasy black peel!
Juxtaposition
Placing two or more things side by side, usually to show contrast
E.g. A juxtaposition in Romeo and Juliet occurs between the realistic, informal Mercutio and the love-sick, unrealistic Romeo.
Paradox
A statement that seems untrue on the surface but is true nevertheless
E.g. “What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” George Bernard Shaw
Allusion
An indirect, passing reference to some event, person, place or artistic work, the nature and relevance of which are not explained but relies on the reader’s familiarity with what is thus mentioned.
Analogy
Analogies argue that 2 seemingly different items are proportional, and in so doing, build an argument about a larger issue.
E.g. Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you’re gonna get
Euphemism
The expression of an unpleasant or embarrassing notion by using a more inoffensive substitute.
E.g. “pass away” instead of “die”
Hyperbole
Extreme exaggeration
Understatement
Expresses an idea with less emphasis/ to a lesser degree than is the actual case.
Verbal Irony
The contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what is meant.
Situational Irony
The result of an action is the reverse of what is expected.
E.g. Macbeth murders his king hoping that in becoming king he will achieve great happiness. Actually, Macbeth never knows another moment of peace, and finally is beheaded for his murderous act.
Metaphor
Comparison without using like or as
Metonymy
Another form of metaphor in which an object or concept is referred to not by its own name, but instead by the name of something closely associated with it.
E.g. —”The White House declined to comment”: Here, the metonym “White House” refers to the President of the United States.
Oxymoron
A paradox reduced to two words, usually in an adjective-noun, used to emphasize contrasts
E.g. “The bookful blockhead, ignorantly read, with loads of learned lumber in his head.” —Alexander Pope
Personification
The metaphorical representation of an animal or inanimate object as having human attributes
Pun
A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words.
Simile
Comparison using like or as
Synecdoche
A figure of speech in which a part of something stands for the whole or the whole for a part
E.g. “He has many mouths to feed.”
Argument
A way of reasoning where a subject is proved correct/incorrect
Appeal to Credibility/Ethics
A rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker/writer’s credibility, authority, values, or good will.
Appeal to Emotion
The emotional appeal to an audience.
Appeal to Logic
Rhetorical appeals used to convince the audience based on logic or reasoning.
Claim
To make an assertion; to state as true
E.g. Everyone should buy a computer
Deductive Reasoning (syllogism)
Reasoning that utilizes elements of persuasion by asserting a claim; consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
E.g. All humans are mortal [major premise], I am a human [minor premise]; therefore, I am mortal [the conclusion].
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning that begins by citing a number of specific examples and then shows how collectively they constitute a general principle.
E.g. Every time John eats shrimp, he gets sick; based on these specific instances, John assumes that he gets sick because he eats shrimp. (cause/effect argument)
Evidence
Support for a claim
Warrant
An assumption that there is a connection between evidence and claim
Ad hominem Argument
An attack on another person instead of their point of view
E.g. Green Peace’s strategies aren’t effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies.
Begging the question/circular reasoning
This restates the argument rather than actually proving it.
E.g. George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.
Appeal to Faulty Authority
The authority used as support for an argument is not an expert, their colleagues disagree, or the reference to the authority is out of context of the situation
E.g. Albert Einstein stated, “God does not play dice.” Therefore, random probability (luck) is in contradiction to God’s sovereign plan.
-Einstein was an authority in science, not theology
Either/or reasoning
An argument that something complex can be looked at in only two different ways
E.g. We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.
Faulty analogy
Comparing two things that are irrelevant, do not pose a valid comparison
E.g. People who have to have a cup of coffee every morning before they can function are the same as alcoholics who have to have their alcohol each day to sustain them.
Hasty generalization
Not enough support/evidence for the inductive reasoning used
E.g. Even though it’s only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.
Slippery Slope
This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps, through B, C,…, X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don’t want Z to occur A must not be allowed to occur, either.
E.g. “If we legalize euthanasia, pretty soon all types of murder will be legal.”
Non-Sequitur
A conclusion that had no visible connection to the support for the claim
E.g. Since Egyptians did so much excavation to construct the pyramids, they were well versed in paleontology
Oversimplification
Reducing an idea so much that it loses the point trying to be made
E.g. Political slogans such as “Taxation is theft” fall in this category
Expository Writing
Writing that informs, instructs or presents ideas and general truths
Classification and Division (Expository)
Division: Identifies how the larger thing or group can be divided into smaller groups.
Classification: Takes the smaller groups and puts them into different categories.
Cause and Effect (expository)
Arguing from the presence/absence of the cause to the (non) existence of the result
E.g. If You Give a Mouse a Cookie, Laura Numeroff
Comparison/contrast (expository)
The subject is shown more clearly by pointing out similarities or differences.
E.g. Men Are from Mars; Women Are from Venus, John Gray
Definition (expository)
Writing that has the goal of specifically defining—through examples, anecdotes, and other illustrations—the writer’s own personal view of a term or concept.
E.g. “Being a Man,” Paul Theroux
“On Self-Respect,” Joan Didion
Example (expository)
Explains the subject using vivid and specific examples that show readers its nature or character (exemplification).
E.g. Tree > oak > a deciduous genus of North America bearing acorns
Process Analysis (expository)
To inform readers how a sequence of actions leads to a particular result (think “how to do something”)
E.g. -How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie
Description
Creates a dominant impression by depicting scenes through sensory imagery and details.
Narration
Stories: Organizes the events or actions in time or relates them in space. Tells what happened, when it happened, and where it happened.
Argument
Convinces an audience by proving or refuting a point of view using induction or deduction
