Revolutions of 1848

Question 1

Why were people unhappy in France leading up to 1848?

Answer 1

People had expected change from before previous revolutions, but Louis Phillipe seemed similar to previous kings
Only wealthy people were allowed to vote
Unemployment had forced many skilled people into a lower social order - the proletariat
Political gatherings and demonstrations were banned

Question 2

What were ‘Campagne des Banquets’?

Answer 2

In France activists held ‘Campagne des Banquets’ to discuss views on government. They were banned in January 1848.

Question 3

Why did revolution break out in France in 1848?

Answer 3

‘Campagne des Banquets’ were banned in January 1848. Revolts broke out and Prime Minister Guizot resigned on 23rd February. A large crowd gathered outside the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. An officer ordered then not to pass, but they pushed forward. A soldier (probably accidentally) fired his musket, so the rest of the soldiers fired, killing 52. In response people revolted more and stormed the Palace of Tuileries. Louis Phillipe fled to England.

Question 4

What changes took place in the French revolution of 1848?

Answer 4

A new provisional government was formed, called the ‘Second Republic’
All men were given the vote on 2nd March
‘National Workshops’ were created to help the unemployed
Laws on freedom of speech were relaxed and newspapers sprung up all over France

Question 5

What were National Workshops?

Answer 5

A scheme introduced by the provisional government after revolution in France. They guaranteed French citizens the right to vote, and employed 100,000 people by May 1848. They brought employment to Paris, but there was little for workers to do. They were closed on 21st June from lack of funds.

Question 6

How successful was the French revolution in 1848?

Answer 6

Many wealthy Parisians left the city with their businesses, leaving it in poverty
The National Workshops were poorly thought out
In May the chairman of the government was replaced with an ‘executive commission’, a body acting as head of state with five co-presidents
They levied new taxes on the gentry, peasants and small farmers to pay for National Workshops
The taxes created a split between the cities and the country, and National Workshops were closed on 21st June

Question 7

What was the ‘June Days Revolution’?

Answer 7

A revolt from the people relying on the National Workshops after they were closed. Between the 23rd and 25th June, Paris revolted. The army was called in to break up blockades and over 1000 people were killed, with thousands more imprisoned.

Question 8

What was Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power?

Answer 8

The people elected Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte as president to head the National Assembly in December 1848, despite other more experienced candidates
He could not convince the elected assembly to do what he wanted. They refused him to run for president again after four years
He staged a coup on 2nd December 1851. He gained power from a new constitution and made himself president for 10 more years
A year later he declared himself Emperor Napoleon III, beginning the Second Empire

Question 9

Why were people unhappy in Austria leading up to 1848?

Answer 9

The Empire was made up of many modern countries, like Hungary, Croatia, and Czechia, as well as ethnic Magyars, Czechs, and Slavs. By 1848 they had become increasingly nationalist and longed to gain independence
The economy was not doing well, leading to unhappiness among the working classes over money, taxes, and religion
Fearing revolution, the government banned university activities and fraternities and abolished freedom of the press, leading to underground newspapers and pamphlets

Question 10

Why did revolution break out in Austria in 1848?

Answer 10

In March 1848 a radical Magyar group, led by Louis Kossuth, began making speeches demanding Hungarian independence. They were published in Vienna, starting an uprising
Metternich, chancellor of the Austrian Empire, who promoted equality, fled Vienna, fearing a revolution, making rebels think they had the upper hand
Riots broke out in Hungary on 15th March. Revolutionaries stormed the Buda fortress to release political prisoners. They demanded a new national government
Czechs and Italians under Austrian control also rebelled

Question 11

What changes took place in the Austrian revolution of 1848?

Answer 11

Count Louis Battyany became chairman and Louis Kossuth minister of finance in the national government
Emperor Ferdinand signed a reform package: the ‘March Laws’
Nobles lost their privileges and began to pay taxes
Serfdom ended and some peasants were able to buy land
Freedom of the press was granted, as well as the right to meet for political reasons
A Hungarian national guard was created
Transylvania was brought under Hungarian rule
The Czech movement in Bohemia was given the same status and the Italian states of Milan and Lombardy rose against Austrian occupation

Question 12

What were the ‘March Laws’?

Answer 12

Reforms signed by Emperor Ferdinand that said Hungary would remain part of the Empire, but reduced its power, giving Hungary ministries of defence and finance and the right to issue their own currency through their own bank

Question 13

Why were non-Magyar groups in Hungary opposed to the revolution?

Answer 13

They feared nationalism - when a single race would dominate - and did not like that Transylvania had been taken over. The Vienna government enlisted these minorities to attempt to overthrow the Hungarian government.

Question 14

What was the Austrian response to the 1848 revolution?

Answer 14

In June in Prague some Slavic nationalists held a conference to discuss independence. It was badly organised and fighting broke out. Emperor Ferdinand used his army to restore order
Lombardy and Milan were brought back into line with force
They ordered the Hungarian government to resign, which they ignored

Question 15

What happened when Croatia got involved in the Austrian revolution?

Answer 15

The governor of Croatia Josip Jelacic led an army into Hungary, forcing Batthyany to resign. Kossuth’s guard retaliated and defeated them
A committee of national defence led by Kossuth took control, establishing a Hungarian army, issuing paper money and starting a movement to make Magyar the official language
The Serbo-Croatians rebelled, asking the Emperor for help
On 6th October Ferdinand prepared to send troops into Hungary but was stopped by the people in Vienna
The Emperor and his court fled to modern day Czechia
Austrian and Croatian armies attacked rebels in Vienna in 26th October, storming the city by the 31st. Rebel leaders were rounded up and executed
Emperor Ferdinand abdicated on 2nd December

Question 16

What happened to Austria after Emperor Ferdinand abdicated?

Answer 16

He was replaced by Franz Joseph, his nephew. He said that as he did not sign the March laws, he did not have to respect them. He invaded Hungary with the Russians in 1848. It surrended on 13th August. Kossuth escaped, but many leaders were executed. The Empire took full control again; the revolutions had failed.

Question 17

Why were people unhappy in Italy leading up to 1848?

Answer 17

There were distinct states as absolute monarchies but generally kinder to the poor and women than other European countries
Some people wanted unification but all wanted no Italian states ruled by Austria
In 1831 a society called ‘The Carbonaria’ united all others in a revolt against Austrian rule. Ringleaders were executed, but Mazzini escaped
He formed a new society: ‘Young Italy’

Question 18

What was ‘Young Italy’?

Answer 18

A society formed by Mazzini where every member had to be under 40 and prepared to use violence. They knew 200 years ago the Italian states were powerful and free from foreign influence. They wanted this again, but united in an Italian republic.

Question 19

How did revolt break out in Sicily in 1848?

Answer 19

On 12th January the people of Palermo, Sicily declared independence from the Bourbon King and brought back the pre-1812 constitution, allowing some democracy and an elected parliament. All of Sicily except Messina followed the re-established constitution.

Question 20

How and why did revolt break out in Milan in 1848?

Answer 20

People stopped playing the lottery and smoking, denying Austrians taxes
People gathered in the streets in support, but Austrian soldiers fired, killing 61
Citizens armed themselves and filled the city in the ‘Five days of Milan’
Austrian soldiers were forced to leave, and leaders pledged allegiance to the King of Piedmont-Sardinia

Question 21

What happened after Sicily and Milan rebelled?

Answer 21

Other states, like Trento and Venice, declared themselves independent republics
Charles Albert of Savoy marched into Lombardy to help rebels
Venice held its ground, while other states continued to fight
The Prime Minister of Rome was assassinated and The Pope fled from Rome to Naples
With Rome free from the Pope Mazzini and Garibaldi declared a Roman Republic

Question 22

What changes took place after the Italian revolution of 1848?

Answer 22

In ‘Rome of the People’ Garibaldi and Mazzini set about getting rid of taxes and creating work for the unemployed
Some land owned by the Church was given to the poor
The prison system was reformed as well as asylums
Freedom of the press was granted
Secular schools were set up, free from church interference

Question 23

Why did the Italian revolution start to go wrong?

Answer 23

Charles Albert was only really interested in claiming cities for his kingdom
Pope Pius IX withdrew his troops in May. Other Italian leaders followed suit
Austria was winning the fight against Piedmont-Sardinia. Rebels retreated to Milan and Charles Albert signed a treaty agreeing a return to old borders in August
The Roman Republic faced inflation and other financial troubles from sending troops to Piedmont-Sardinia

Question 24

What did the Pope do after he was driven from Rome?

Answer 24

He was determined to get it back. In France Napoleon III thought helping the Pope would win loyalty from French Catholics
He sent in French troops. Young Italian volunteers, led by Garibaldi, attempted to hold them off. They sent them back out to sea, but the French were well trained, and landed again
After three weeks the Young Italians gave up and fled

Question 25

How did the Italian revolution end?

Answer 25

After Rome had been taken back, the Austrians blockaded Venice. Faced with a fear of starvation, a well equipped enemy bombing by hot air balloons and an outbreak of cholera, rebels surrended.
Austria reclaimed the Italian states and the Pope returned to Rome. Revolutionaries were punished. Sicily held out the longest, but was captured in May 1849.

Question 26

What was the German Confederation?

Answer 26

It was made up of 39 states created from lots of smaller ones. It was put under the leadership of the Austrian Emperor. It was not concerned with German unification, nor did the individual rulers of the 39 states wish to lose any power, they merely wanted to join forces in a time of conflict.

Question 27

What were the ‘Karlsbad Decrees’?

Answer 27

They were introduced by Metternich, Chancellor of Austria, and passed by the Confederation. They ensured tighter censorship by banning liberal newspapers, dismissing some university professors, and imprisoning some radical leaders.

Question 28

What were the ‘Six Acts’?

Answer 28

In 1832 Metternich persuaded the Confederation to pass it. They banned public meetings, tightened control of universities and the press and obliged German princes to resist any attempt to reduce their power.

Question 29

Why were people unhappy in German states leading up to 1848?

Answer 29

The ‘Karlsbad Decrees’ made people lose liberties
In July 1830 revolution in Paris sparked riots in several German states which mostly came to nothing
The ‘Six Acts’ further reduced liberties
A commission was set up to arrest people trying to form a ‘Young Germany’ and campaigning for a united, liberal Germany
By 1840 there was growing demand for a united Germany, particularly in the middle class. Nationalism was very important
In 1840 Frederick William IV became the new King of Prussia. At first he released political prisoners and abolished censorship, but after 3 years he had re-imposed press censorship and taken power from local governments

Question 30

What was the Prussian Customs Union?

Answer 30

After 1815, all German states managed their own economies. Customs barriers and tariffs made trade difficult and expensive
In 1819 Prussia made an agreement with neighbouring states to remove these barriers, creating a wider market for home produced goods at lower prices
Other states either joined or formed opposing unions
By 1834 the Prussian Customs Union aka the German Customs Union or Zollverein was the most successful, incorporating 18 states, but not Austria
It made the idea of a united Germany seem possible

Question 31

What happened in the German revolution of 1848 before Prussian demonstrations?

Answer 31

There were some small rebellions and peaceful protests in 1848 that were quickly suppressed
At a meeting in Heidelberg in March, 51 representatives from 6 states discussed political changes and unity. On 5th March they decided representatives from all German peoples should meet

Question 32

What happened in the Prussian demonstrations during the 1848 revolution?

Answer 32

In Prussia there was a demonstration by workers and troops were sent in. On 18th March Frederick William agreed to accept the idea of a new German constitution
A crowd gathered outside the palace to cheer the King, but shots were fired to try and clear it. Barricades were set up and fighting broke out
Frederick William made a personal letter to appeal for peace called ‘To my dear Berliners’. It said troops would be withdrawn if barricades were taken down
Troops were withdrawn but barricades were not. Berlin citizens formed a civic guard to protect the palace
The King came out with black, red and gold round his arm. He declared he wanted a united Germany, to huge applause

Question 33

What changes took place in the German revolution of 1848?

Answer 33

On 31st March in Frankfurt 574 representatives from almost all states in the Confederation met to discuss change, known as the ‘Vorparlament’
After 5 days of debate they agreed a national parliament would be made of one representative for every 50,000 people, voted for by some
Elections happened quickly; the first national parliament met in May
They wanted to create a national constitution but could not agree on what it should include: whether it should be a monarchy or a republic and whether it should include Austria

Question 34

What was the problem with Schleswig-Holstein in 1848?

Answer 34

They were ruled by Denmark. Holstein was part of the Confederation. The Frankfurt Assembly wanted them both to be in Germany while Denmark wanted neither. Denmark started a blockade of German Harbours. The Confederation founded a German army and ordered Prussian troops to enter it. Prussia and Denmark agreed to share administration of the area. The Frankfurt Assembly were annoyed as they had not been consulted. There was an uprising against them in September that was put down by Prussia and Austria. This undermined the position of the National Assembly and made it look like they were more interested in keeping princes happy than the people’s wishes.

Question 35

What happened after the Schleswig-Holstein problem of 1848?

Answer 35

Frederick William had appointed his uncle Count Brandenburg as Prussian Prime Minister. Frederick William, back with his army, said he did not wish to be a citizen king like he had said earlier. Count Brandenburg set about exiling revolutionaries from Berlin, dissolved the civil guard, and moved troops in, with virtually no resistance.

Question 36

Why did the Frankfurt Parliament fail?

Answer 36

In December the Frankfurt Parliament approved the ‘fifty articles of the fundamental rights of the German citizen’. In Prussia, Frederick William put forward his own constitution, saying in parliament he could appoint and dismiss ministers, control the army, and change the constitution. The Frankfurt parliament opposed this but Prussia agreed and Otto von Bismarck was put in charge of Parliament. The Frankfurt parliament could find no leader as they would have Prussia as their enemy. As a last effort they offered Frederick William the German crown, but he refused, finishing the parliament. Many members left; the others were driven out, then forcibly dispersed in June 1849.