Revolutions and Nationalism

Question 1

American Revolution

Answer 1

Political and military conflict that took place between thirteen colonies and Britain from 1775 to 1783, a fight for independence by the American colonies.

Question 2

Timeline of American Revolution

Answer 2

• Seven Years War (1756-1763): A global conflict involving major powers like Russia and France, primarily a struggle for imperial supremacy. The French and Indian War, a subset, involved natives siding with the French for trade interests. It concluded with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, recognizing American independence, though Britain won at a cost.- Proclamation Line of 1763: Colonists opposed the king’s expansion of British territory boundaries, fearing wasted money. The king sent armies to monitor them.- Stamp Act of 1765: Colonists had to pay a stamp tax on paper to fund Britain’s war debts. Many colonists disliked the imposed taxes.- Quartering Act of 1765: Colonies had to provide housing for British troops within their homes.- Townshend Acts (Revenue Acts of 1767): Taxes on imports like lead, paper, and tea from Britain, with British authorities allowed to search homes for compliance.- Boston Tea Party (1773): Over 100 colonists protested unfair tea taxes by dumping 90,000 pounds of tea into the water.- Intolerable Acts: Punitive measures after the Boston Tea Party, including closed Boston harbors, British control over Massachusetts government, and increased troops in the colonies.

Question 3

Declaration of Independence

Answer 3

• Written mostly by Thomas Jefferson, with help from Ben Franklin and John Adams. The declaration believed in natural rights and was inspired by John Locke’s ideas of life, liberty, property.* The core parts of the Declaration are the preamble, (which was the Introduction/Explanation/preface), an explanation of the declaration of natural right (Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness), grievances to King George III, and a resolution to the lack of independence (Statement to leave british and forming own country)

Question 4

Ancien régime (Old Regime) Three Estates

Answer 4

• Old French Society Hierarchy * Rooted in feudalism* Three parts of the hierarchy, with the king and queen above all1. The clergy (<1%) (First Estate)* Didn’t pay tax, gave voluntary gifts to the government for tax exemption * Owned 10% of land* Tithe (could tax everyone else 10% but money was used for good)2. Nobility (<2%) (Second Estate)* Owned 25% of land* Could work, but not physical work (could own businesses). Some were poor but refused to do physical labor to keep their status * Collected taxes from 3rd estate3. Commoners (97-8%) (Third Estate)* Owned 65% of land* Bourgeoisie (middle class) were merchants, lawyers, doctors (skilled workers)* Urban workers/Sans Culottes (those without knee breeches) were tradesmen, apprentices, etc (unskilled workers) * PeasantsNo hope to improve situation~21 millionNo political power100% tax

Question 5

Louis XVI

Answer 5

Louis XVI was the last reigning monarch of France before the French Revolution. He ascended to the throne in 1774 and faced financial troubles, contributing to the unrest that led to the revolution. Louis the XVI ignored the demands of the National Assembly, but would accept the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the National Assembly as the government of France. Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, became symbols of royal excess and were eventually executed by guillotine during the Reign of Terror. Marie Antoinette, an Austrian princess, faced criticism for her lavish lifestyle, adding to the monarchy’s unpopularity. She was known for the phrase “let them eat cake” but there is no concrete evidence she stated that. The couple’s fate marked a significant turning point in French history.

Question 6

Estates general

Answer 6

An assembly that represented the entire French population through groups known as estates. Each estate gets one vote, as opposed to the individual voting system.

Question 7

National Assembly

Answer 7

French lawmaking body made by the third estate, separate from the estates general. King relented to this new form of government, and asked the first and second estate to join. Their goal was “liberty, equality, and fraternity”.

Question 8

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (August 26, 1789)

Answer 8

Document from the french revolution. Someone who is French, but American ties, which was Marquis de la Fayetta, was the key to draft in the declaration. He worked with American friends, such as Thomas Jefferson to make it. Lafayette was the wealthiest man in French, and had many connections, and was a part of the revolutionary war. George Washington took him under his wing, and returned to France as a war hero. He was an important figure of the French revolution. The key ideas of the declaration was the equality of all men, the idea that sovereignty resides in the people, and all people had the rights to liberty, property, and security. Gave young male citizens, who are 25 years of age, the rights to vote.

Question 9

Maximilien Robespierre

Answer 9

Maximilien Robespierre was a key figure in the French Revolution, known for his role in the Reign of Terror. He was a Jacobin leader advocating for radical political and social change. Robespierre was a driving force behind the Committee of Public Safety and played a significant role in the execution of King Louis XVI. However, his political influence eventually led to his downfall, and he was executed in 1794.

Question 10

Reign of Terror

Answer 10

Period of the French revolution. It was an extremely violent Revolution led by Maximillian Robespierre. The goal was to eliminate anyone who would be seen as a threat to the revolution, even citizens of France who didn’t directly oppose the revolution. The guillotine became very popular and as a symbol of the French revolution as a result of this, as 40,000 people were killed by this machine, since many people were seen as a threat, such as the privileged class, soldiers, and people from the countryside. This France tried to rebuild their society by removing their past, closing churches to get rid of any religious history, removing Christianity, etc. Robespierre proposed a list of committee members to be executed, and since specific names were said, the committee got so paranoid inside to kill him first

Question 11

Jacobins

Answer 11

The Jacobins were members of a political club during the French Revolution, known for their radical views and leadership in the Reign of Terror. They played a significant role in shaping revolutionary policies, advocating for a republic and promoting social equality. Had a very radical agenda, tried to remove christianity and replace it with a cult of reason. Maximilien Robespierre was a prominent Jacobin leader.

Question 12

Committee of Public Safety

Answer 12

Led by Maximilien Robespierre, it was an executive authority of the French Republic, and exercised broad powers to safeguard the revolution by identifying and suppressing counter-revolutionaries.

Question 13

Napoleon Bonaparte

Answer 13

• Rules as first Consul from 1799 to 1804. He ruled as French emperor for two terms, from 1804 to 1814 and from March 1815 to June 1815. He was a powerful military figure, becoming a general at 24 and seized power after signing a coup d’ etat. * Good things Napoleon Did1. Appointed officials loyal to him (but still efficient and good)2. Est. France’s first public education system3. Funded multiple public beautification projects in Paris4. Ended violent conflict w/RCC by negotiating with Pope* Bad things Napoleon did 1. limited free speech2. censored most publications3. established police force that relied on spies4. detained 1000s of suspected political opponents 5. Founded dynasty that set his family above and apart the people they rules

Question 14

Continental System

Answer 14

The Continental System was Napoleon’s plan to stop countries he controlled in Europe from buying things from Britain using military force so he could weaken the British economy. This economic strategy was part of his broader efforts to assert dominance over Europe and diminish the influence of his adversaries, including Britain, during the Napoleonic Wars.

Question 15

Napoleonic Code/Civil code

Answer 15

The Revised Body of Civil Law which helped to stabilize French society.* Affirmed the political and illegal equality of all adult men and established the merit based society in which individuals could be qualified for education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing* The code also protected private property* Napoleon allowed aristocratic opponents of the revolutions to return to France and reclaim some of their lost property.* Restored patriarchal authority, such as making women and children subservient to male heads of the household. Inspired codes such as ones in Canada, Netherlands, Italy and Spain.

Question 16

Haitian Revolution

Answer 16

• The only successful slave revolt in history, happening after the French revolution. The Haitian Revolution was driven by the brutal enslavement of Africans on the island of Hispaniola, especially in the lucrative sugar plantations of the French colony of Saint-Domingue. The enslaved population rebelled against the harsh conditions, seeking freedom and an end to exploitation, ultimately leading to the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic in the Americas.

Question 17

Toussaint L’Ouverture

Answer 17

• Toussaint Louverture played a key role in the Haitian Revolution, initially as a leader in the civil war between gens de couleur and white settlers.* Born on a plantation, he received education from a lenient massa, becoming literate and rising to oversee livestock and cultivate coffee on leased lands.* A privileged slave with good financial management, he became a free man in 1776 and aided his master’s escape during the 1791 slave revolt.* A skilled organizer, he built a disciplined army of 20,000 by 1793, strategically playing French, British, and Spanish forces against each other.* In 1801, Toussaint created a constitution for Saint Dominique, granting equality and citizenship, but stopped short of declaring independence to avoid Napoleon’s potential aggression.

Question 18

Gens de couleur

Answer 18

French for people of color, the mulattoes and black people. Many were domestic servants, artisans, some influential proportion of them had small plots of lands and slaves.

Question 19

Peninsulares

Answer 19

People born in Spain, that had the most power in Latin America.

Question 20

Creoles

Answer 20

People of European descent, and born in the American colonies, second most powerful in Latin America

Question 21

Mestizos and mulattoes

Answer 21

The mestizos were European and native, the mulattoes were European and African. Had third most power in Latin America, were mixed race. Had more power than native Americans and people of African Descent.

Question 22

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Answer 22

• Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a parish priest, emerged as a leader in the Mexican independence movement, spearheading a peasant rebellion against Spanish rule.* Mobilized indigenous peoples and mestizos, utilizing symbols like the Virgin of Guadalupe to rally support.* His movement represented social and economic warfare against the Mexican elite, marked by a call for the death of Spaniards.* Captured and executed by Conservative Creoles, Hidalgo’s rebellion persisted for three years after his death.* Despite its eventual suppression, he became a symbol of Mexican independence, and the day he proclaimed his revolt is now a national holiday in Mexico.

Question 23

Simon Bolivar

Answer 23

• Simon Bolivar, a Venezuelan creole statesman, played a crucial role in the South American struggle for independence against Spanish rule, earning him the title “The Liberator.”(El Libertador)* Born into the creole elite, he led successful military campaigns in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru, collaborating with other Creole leaders like Jose de San Martin and Bernardo O’Higgins.* Despite initial setbacks, he persevered, surprising and crushing the Spanish army in 1819, contributing to the liberation of South American countries.* Inspired by Enlightenment ideals and influenced by George Washington, Bolivar aimed to create Gran Colombia, but by 1830, political and regional differences led to its disintegration, leaving him disillusioned, causing him to think South America was “ungovernable”

Question 24

Gran Colombia

Answer 24

Three independent countries ruled under one republic to unite them. The three countries were Colombia, Ecuador and Venezeula.

Question 25

Jose de San Martin

Answer 25

• José de San Martín, born in 1778, was a national hero of Argentina, playing a crucial role in revolutions against Spanish rule in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.* Initially educated in Spain, he fought loyally for Spain in various conflicts, but in 1812, he returned to the New World to support the revolutionaries.* San Martín’s notable achievements include the liberation of Lima, a strategic move securing the independence of the Argentine provinces.* In 1817, he successfully liberated Chile, entrusting its governance to Bernardo O’Higgins, and blockaded the chief port in Peru, declaring its independence. He did this to conquer his main goal of controlling Bolivia (Upper Peru) to drive out the Spaniards.1. He goes to this meeting to talk to Jose because Jose wanted Euro leader to enforce democracy, ad he wanted a republic* After meeting with Simón Bolívar in 1822 in the Guayaquil Conference, San Martín mysteriously went into exile in France, leaving Bolívar to complete the liberation of Peru.

Question 26

Conservatism

Answer 26

A way to preserve traditional social and political institutions, resisting radical changes associated with revolutionary movements.

Question 27

Liberalism

Answer 27

Political ideology advocating for individual rights, representative government, and the rule of law, often associated with Enlightenment ideals and a desire for constitutional and progressive reforms.

Question 28

Agrarian Revolution

Answer 28

Second agricultural revolution after the Neolithic revolution, characterized by mechanization, transforming traditional farming practices through the widespread adoption of machinery and technological innovations to increase agricultural efficiency and productivity.

Question 29

Seed drill

Answer 29

A mechanical invention pulled by horses allowing farmers to sow seeds in well-spaced rows at specific depths.

Question 30

Crop rotation

Answer 30

One year a farmer might plant a field with wheat which exhausted soil nutrients. The next year he planted a root crop like turnips to restore nutrients. This might be followed by barley, then clover.

Question 31

Nationalism

Answer 31

• Belief that each nationality should have its own government or country* Loyalty to a nation or people who share some or all of the following:* History, culture, religion, language, territory, etc. Extreme form of patriotism.

Question 32

Enclosure system

Answer 32

It involved consolidating small landholdings into larger, enclosed fields, often fenced off, and adopting more modern and complex farming methods, allowing for new tech to be made and experimented with.

Question 33

Cottage Industry

Answer 33

“Cottage Industry” refers to a system of production in which goods are produced at home, typically by individuals or small groups of artisans. Due to the rural women who worked on textiles at home, the cottage industry grew

Question 34

Industrial Revolution

Answer 34

During the Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century), there was a major change in how things were made. Machines started doing more work, especially in factories. New technologies like the steam engine were introduced. This shift led to the growth of cities, where factories were based. Society moved from focusing on farming to industry, causing big changes in how people lived and worked.

Question 35

Industrial Revolution: Causes and Effects

Answer 35

• Natural Resources:1. Cause: Britain’s mild climate, abundant rainfall, hills, fast rivers, and rich coal and iron deposits.2. Effect: Successful farming and reduced invasion risk due to geographical separation from the European continent.* Entrepreneurship:1. Cause: British business people with a tradition of innovation open to new ideas.2. Effect: Innovation in crops and farming techniques, leading to cheaper food.* Capital:1. Cause: Big British landowners benefited from agricultural reforms, making profits.2. Effect: Increased profits for landowners, and U.S merchants profited from trading with colonies.* Labor:1. Cause: Agricultural reforms increased food production, improving diets and population growth.2. Effect: More workers in large industrial factories, leading to increased investment in technology and a skilled workforce.

Question 36

Flying shuttle

Answer 36

A type of weaving shuttle that speeded up the weaving process and stimulated demand for thread made by John Kay in 1733.

Question 37

Mule

Answer 37

A machine made in 1779 by Sameul Crompton became the device of choice for spinning cotton. A worker using a steam-driven mule could produce a hundred times more thread than a worker using a manual spinning wheel.

Question 38

Power loom

Answer 38

In 1785 Edmund Cartwright, a clergyman without training or experience in either mechanics or textiles, patented a water-driven power loom that inaugurated an era of mechanical weaving. Within two decades steam moved the power loom, and by the 1820s it had largely supplanted hand weavers in the cotton industry.

Question 39

James Watt

Answer 39

James Watt was an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow in Scotland. He created the general purpose steam engine in 1765.

Question 40

Factory system

Answer 40

The characteristic method of production in industrial economies. Production processes were centralized in large industrial facilities known as factories as opposed to a domestic system where work was done remotely.

Question 41

Working conditions

Answer 41

• The factory system, while boosting productivity, introduced unsettling working conditions. It created an owner class with the means to afford machinery, leaving workers solely dependent on wages.* Industrial jobs, often narrowly defined, made previously acquired artisanal skills obsolete and contributed to worker alienation. * The new work discipline, guided by clocks and machines, imposed longer workdays of twelve to fourteen hours, disrupting traditional rural labor rhythms and creating a challenging environment for industrial workers.

Question 42

Child labor

Answer 42

• Children were used as workers in factories1. The govt made very little regulations about it* Often used machines such as the power loom1. It was very dangerous, and children were often injured or killed2. Children could be sent to the mines and would get injuries from the fumes* Paid even less* Little to no education* Long working hours * Insufficient diet*Children costed 50% od an adult women and 33% of an adult man

Question 43

Factory Act 1833

Answer 43

• Government made a certain set of rules to make the conditions relatively better in the factories, just enough so they wouldn’t rebel, but still very terrible. * Regulation of working conditions1. No workers under 92. Workers 9-13, limited work week of 48 hrs, 8 hr days3. Children under 13 must receive 2 hrs of primary educationOnly applied to textile industry

Question 44

Sadler Committee

Answer 44

• Lead by Michael Sadler* Investigation into working conditions of the textile industry + factorie

Question 45

Luddites

Answer 45

A person opposed to the development of new technologies, They called their leader King Lud. Luddites operated only at night, with masks on, and avoided violence against people, making them popular.

Question 46

Eli Whitney

Answer 46

• Eli Whitney (1765-1825): Inventor of the cotton gin (1793) and pioneer in mass production techniques.* Developed machine tools for producing interchangeable parts in firearm manufacturing.* Introduced the concept of unskilled workers making specific parts that fit all units of the same model.* Whitney’s method extended beyond firearms, applied to clocks, sewing machines, uniforms, and shoes.* By the mid-19th century, mass production of standardized items became a defining feature of industrial societies.

Question 47

Henry Ford

Answer 47

• Henry Ford, an American businessman and inventor, founded Ford Motor Company and introduced several groundbreaking innovations.* Invented the famous Model T car, revolutionizing the automotive industry.* Introduced the moving assembly line method of production in 1913, significantly increasing efficiency.* Pioneered the five-day, 40-hour workweek for his workforce in 1926, impacting labor practices.* Ford’s assembly line and manufacturing techniques greatly increased productivity and transformed vehicle manufacturing and the American economy.

Question 48

Corporations

Answer 48

A corporation is a legal entity created to conduct business activities. Corporations controlled most businesses requiring large investments in land, labor, or machinery.

Question 49

Trusts

Answer 49

Large corporations or combinations of companies that join forces and consolidate under a single controlling entity, known as a trust. Wanted to control the supply of a product and hence its price in the marketplace.

Question 50

Population growth

Answer 50

• Population Growth:1. Europe: Increased from 105 million to 390 million during the 18th and 19th centuries.2. Western Hemisphere: North and South America surged from 13 million to 145 million.3. Argentina: Population growth from 300,000 to 4.75 million.4. Temperate North America (U.S.): Increased from 6 million to 76 million.* Factors Contributing to Population Growth:1. Changing Fertility and Mortality Patterns: Shift from high mortality due to famines and epidemics to controlled disease and reduced mortality.2. Medical Advances: Edward Jenner’s smallpox vaccination (1797) as a breakthrough, leading to vaccines against various diseases.* Impact of Medical Advances:1. Smallpox Vaccination: Jenner’s procedure contributed to the decline of smallpox and laid the foundation for scientific immunology.2. Widespread Vaccines: Over time, vaccines developed to prevent diseases like polio, tetanus, typhoid, and whooping cough, improving overall public health.

Question 51

Urbanization

Answer 51

Urbanization is the process of population concentration in cities and the development of urban areas. During industrialization, urbanization experienced significant growth as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of employment opportunities in burgeoning industries. This migration was fueled by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial economies, since all the farms were being enclosed and the only place to work was the factories. The allure of jobs in factories and the potential for a better standard of living attracted a large influx of people to urban centers.

Question 52

Demographic transition

Answer 52

In the beginning of the 19th century, industrializing land experienced a social change, known as the demographic transition, shifting patterns of fertility and immorality. As industrialization transformed societies, fertility began a marked decline, and mortality rates fell even harder. The principal reason for declining fertility in industrial lands was voluntary birth control to contraception.

Question 53

Middle class

Answer 53

Less powerful than the captains of industry were the working class, consisting of small business owners, factory managers, engineers, accountants, skilled employees of large corporations, and professionals such as teachers, physicians and attorneys.Industrial production generated a lot of wealth and most of it went to the working class.

Question 54

Working class

Answer 54

Working class were masses of unskilled laborers. They tended to machines, or provided heavy labor for low wages. Concentrated in mining and industrial centers, the working class began to influence political affairs by the mid 19th century.

Question 55

Socialism

Answer 55

Advocating collective or governmental ownership and administration of the means of production and distribution of goods.

Question 56

Capitalism

Answer 56

Private ownership of businesses and property and decisions made by individual citizens.

Question 57

Adam Smith

Answer 57

Adam Smith (1723-1790) was a Scottish economist and philosopher, often regarded as the father of modern economics. Smith argued for the principles of free-market capitalism and the concept of the “invisible hand,” suggesting that individuals pursuing their self-interest unintentionally contribute to the overall wealth and well-being of society. His ideas emphasized the importance of competition, self-interest, and limited government intervention in economic affairs, shaping the intellectual basis for economic liberalism and classical economics.

Question 58

Wealth of Nations

Answer 58

“The Wealth of Nations” is a seminal work in economics written by Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith. Published in 1776, it discusses the principles of free-market capitalism, emphasizing the role of self-interest and competition in driving economic prosperity. The book explores the benefits of a decentralized economic system, arguing for minimal government interference and the invisible hand of the market to guide economic activities for the collective good.

Question 59

Laissez faire

Answer 59

“Laissez-faire” is a French term that translates to “let it be” or “leave it alone.” In economics, it’s the idea that the government should interfere as little as possible in businesses and markets. Instead, it relies on the natural forces of supply and demand to regulate prices and production. This approach aims for a free-market system where competition and individual self-interest drive economic prosperity. Stated by Adam Smith in Wealth of Nations.

Question 60

Utopian socialists

Answer 60

• Utopian Socialists:1. Group of thinkers in the 19th century.2. Envisioned ideal, cooperative communities to address social issues.3. Aimed to create perfect societies based on equality and communal ownership.* Key Figures:1. Robert Owen and Charles Fourier.* Goals:1. Address social inequalities and improve living conditions. Emphasized cooperative living and shared ownership of resources.* Approach:1. Focus on establishing model communities to demonstrate their ideas.1. Not oriented towards revolutionary changes but rather practical demonstrations.

Question 61

Communism

Answer 61

Property and resources collectively owned by classless society and not by the individual citizens

Question 62

Karl Marx

Answer 62

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and political theorist, best known for co-authoring “The Communist Manifesto” (1848) and writing “Das Kapital”. Aligned himself with the communists.

Question 63

Friedrich Engels

Answer 63

Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) was a German philosopher, communist and collaborator of Karl Marx. His key contributions include co-authoring “The Communist Manifesto” with Marx, developing the materialist conception of history, and writing “The Condition of the Working Class in England” to highlight industrial worker conditions. Engels played a crucial role in editing and publishing volumes of Marx’s seminal work, “Das Kapital,” after Marx’s death.

Question 64

The Communist Manifesto

Answer 64

• Book by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels* Describes communism and problems with capitalism* Asserted that all human history is the history of the struggle between social classes* States that middle class (bourgeoisie) exploits working class (proletariat)

Question 65

Bourgeoisie

Answer 65

The bourgeoisie refers to the capitalist class or the middle-class individuals who own and control the means of production, such as businesses and factories, in a capitalist society.

Question 66

Proletariat

Answer 66

The term “proletariat” refers to the working class in a capitalist society. In Marxist theory, the group of workers who would overthrow the czar and come to rule Russia

Question 67

Social reforms

Answer 67

Social reform is the intentional effort to fix problems caused by early industrialization. Influenced by socialist, conservative, and liberal ideas, governments, especially in Europe, passed laws to improve working conditions and provide welfare for citizens. These reforms, starting in the late 1800s, aimed to create a modern welfare state by introducing measures like retirement pensions, minimum wage laws, and insurance for sickness, accidents, and unemployment. The goal was to address societal issues and ensure the well-being of the population.

Question 68

Trade unions

Answer 68

• Trade unions are organizations formed by workers to collectively advocate for and protect their rights and interests in the workplace.1. They fought against early industrial abuses, seeking higher wages and better conditions.2. Initially considered illegal, tensions rose during strikes, often leading to violence.3. Over time, trade unions improved workers’ lives, reducing the likelihood of major upheavals.4. Instead of seeking to destroy capitalism, they aimed to make employers more responsive to employees’ needs.

Question 69

Global effects of industrialization

Answer 69

• International Division of Labor: - Global workforce creation. - Countries specialize in specific industries.* Demand for Raw Materials:- Industrialization fueled demand for resources and agricultural products from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia, and Eastern Europe.- Mechanization, like in the textile industry, led to increased demand for raw materials like cotton, rubber, and their sources were sought worldwide.* Economic Development:Some lands experienced economic development and eventual industrialization through specialization in primary goods.European colonized lands like Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand saw economic growth through exports, foreign investment, and labor-saving technologies.* Economic Interdependence:Nations develop domestic industries for independence.Industrialization shapes global power dynamics.

Question 70

Congress of Vienna

Answer 70

• After Napoleon’s fall, leaders met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815).- They aimed to counter rising national pride and people’s power to prevent uprisings.- Representatives from major powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia) wanted to restore the pre-revolutionary order.- Led by Austria’s Prince Klemens von Metternich, the Congress sought to dismantle Napoleon’s empire.- The goal was to return power to European royal families, reinstate them on lost thrones, and establish a diplomatic balance.- Metternich and the Congress had limited success in restoring the old order.- The European balance of power lasted until World War I in 1914.- Efforts like censorship and surveillance couldn’t fully prevent the rise of national pride and people’s power by 1815.

Question 71

German Unification

Answer 71

The German Unification, completed in 1871, brought together various independent German states into a single nation-state under Prussian leadership. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck played a key role, using diplomatic strategies and military victories, including the Franco-Prussian War, to unify the German-speaking regions. The process resulted in the establishment of the German Empire with King Wilhelm II as its emperor.

Question 72

Otto von Bismarck

Answer 72

(1815-1898) Appointed Prussian chancellor in 1862 for King Wilhelm II. He began a program of war to unify all the German states under the control of Prussia. His policy was known as Blüt und Eisen or Blood and Iron for war and industry, as a way to unify germany. He was the most powerful statesman in Europe as chancellor of the new German Empire from 1871 to 1890. He was known as the Iron Chancellor. He was also known for his policy of realpolitik or “ends justify the means” rational.

Question 73

Klemens von Metternich

Answer 73

Austrian conservative politician who was central to the congress of vienna. He tried to suppress natural consciousness and had three goals. These goals were weakening France by surrounding it by powerful countries, but not taking away too much power. The second reform was to put European monarchs back into play to contribute to political stability and prevent further revolutionary upheavals. The third reform was to restabilize power so no nation was too powerful.

Question 74

Wilhelm II

Answer 74

• Wilhelm II (1859–1941) was the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, reigning from 1888 to 1918.* His rule was marked by an ambitious and often assertive foreign policy, contributing to the complex alliances that eventually led to World War I.* Wilhelm II advocated for the expansion of the German military and navy, pursuing a policy of militarization and colonial acquisition.* He dismissed the highly skilled and influential Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890, leading to shifts in German domestic and foreign policy.

Question 75

Camillo di Cavour

Answer 75

• Prime minister to King Vittorio Emanuele II of Piedmont and Sardinia, key Italian statesman and leading figure of the Risorgimento.* Influenced by revolutionary ideas, he founded the liberal newspaper Il Risorgimento in 1847 and persuaded Charles Albert to grant a liberal constitution.* Elected to Parliament in 1848, Cavour held various cabinet posts and served as prime minister of Piedmont (1852–59, 1860–61).* By exploiting international rivalries and revolutionary movements, Cavour played a crucial role in the unification of Italy under the house of Savoy.In 1861, he became the first prime minister of the newly unified Italian kingdom.

Question 76

Giuseppe Mazzini

Answer 76

• Italian nationalist activist who made Young Italy, a group that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an united Italian national state. * The group educated Italy and even foreigners about nationalism and why Italy should be united, because when foreign rules were introduced in 1815 they were against nationalism because people super loyal to a country wouldn’t want foreigners to rule. * Mazzini likened the nation to a family and the nation’s territory to the family home. Austrian and Spanish authorities forced Mazzini to lead much of his life in exile, but he used the opportunity to encourage the organization of nationalist movements in new lands.* By the mid-nineteenth century, Young Italy had inspired the development of nationalist movements in Ireland, Switzerland, and Hungary.

Question 77

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Answer 77

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) was an Italian military and political leader who played a crucial role in the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) during the 19th century.* “Red Shirts” Expedition:1. Garibaldi led the famous “Red Shirts,” a small volunteer force that played a significant role in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in Southern Italy. He was able to free Southern Italy and Sicily, and his military campaigns, combined with political maneuvering, contributed to the formation of a unified Italian state in 1861.* Later Years:1. Despite his pivotal role, Garibaldi often found himself at odds with the political establishment, and his dream of a truly republican Italy was not fully realized.

Question 78

King Victor Emmanuel II

Answer 78

• Victor Emmanuel II (1820–1878) was the King of Sardinia from 1849 and, subsequently, the first King of a united Italy from 1861 until his death.* Victor Emmanuel II worked closely with his Prime Minister, Camillo Cavour, in diplomatic and political strategies to achieve Italian unification.* Victor Emmanuel II secured diplomatic alliances and played a strategic role in the wars that led to the annexation of various Italian states into the Kingdom of Sardinia.* Victor Emmanuel II supported Giuseppe Garibaldi’s “Red Shirts” Expedition