Revision Flashcards
1
Q
What are implicit theories of intelligence?
A
People’s views of what intelligence is
2
Q
What are explicit theories of intelligence?
A
Experimentally defined theories of intelligence. Operational definitions of intelligence are those that can be robustly
3
Q
What did Berg and Sternberg say?
A
Different types of intelligence are important at different ages. This was reinforced by Siegler and Richards
4
Q
What did Sternberg say about Western intelligence?
A
In the West intelligence is speed of mental processes, but in other cultures this is seen as suspicious
5
Q
What did Chen and Chen say about intelligence? What did this lead us to say about reasoning behind Western and Non-Western definitions of intelligence
A
Chinese don’t see verbal skills as important as the English do. Chinese intelligence definitions are based on Confucian (which emphasises benevolence and doing what is right) and Western intelligence is based in Aristotilean logic and are driven by individualism
6
Q
What did Gill and Keats say about intelligence?
A
Australian students value academic skills whereas Malay students value practical skills, speach and creativity. THERE ARE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE DEFINITIONS
7
Q
Who was Galton? What did he chit chat about?
A
Developed the theory of heredity genius. Cousin of Darwin. Integrated Darwin’s Origin of Species with Quetelet’s Statistical work. Genetic forces determine levels of intelligence. Genius is normally distributed and heritable
8
Q
Why was Galton a dick’ed and a bit of a fruit loop?
A
Argued that short people would do better in a war (they would, I’m amazing biatchesss) there was a racial heirachy and men were intrinsically more intelligent than women (no. Just no.)
9
Q
Who picked up Galton’s belief of that genius could be measured by simple cognitive functions?
A
James McKEEEEENNN Cattell
10
Q
Who was Cattell?
A
Student of Wundt. First to develop the term “mental test” and argued that intelligence can be measured by 10 psychological functions. Measured direct correlates of intelligence such as head size, reaction time, memorising digits etc rather than actual cognitive abilities
11
Q
What did Binet argue?
A
Argued against Cattell and Galton and believed that intelligence should be measured by focussing on complex mental processes (rather than the simple processes they argued for)
12
Q
What did Binet and Henri do?
A
Produced the first psychometric test. was less theoretical than Galton or Cattell and was more about practical sense and adaptation to the world. This became the foundation of modern intelligence testing. Commisioned by the French government in order to discover children with learning difficulties. Common sense approach so a robust academic evaluator
13
Q
What did Terman do?
A
Argued that Binet and Henri’s tests were too culturally laden to be relayed to Californian children. Ran large scale studies to improve the test to all children. Scores were expressed as an intelligence quotient. Created the Stanford-Binet test.
14
Q
How do we work out the intelligence quotient?
A
Mental age / Chronological age x 100
15
Q
How did Spearman oppose Galton’s theory of intelligence?
A
Used factor analysis and data reduction techniques to show that different ability tests were intercorrelated. The common variable behind this represents “g”. Used reaction times rather than unobservable measurements
16
Q
Spearman vs. Binet
A
Spearman was attracted to the simplification of the German tradition. Binet argued they were inappropriate for measuring the complex nature of intelligence. Binet argued that “g” was wrong as people could use different knowledge to obtain the same score
17
Q
What did Louis Thurstone argued?
A
He said we require multiple factor analysis. Argued the importance of seven primary capacities - verbal comprehension, word fluency, word number, number faculty, reasoning, spatial visualisation, perceptual speed, associative memory
18
Q
Define psychometrics
A
branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude and personal traits. Used in two ways: to make decisions regarding the person who takes the test (e.g. for a job offer, scholarship) or used for research (correlating data to test theories)
19
Q
What are group tests? Give examples, pros and cons
A
Allow large samples to be measured in a quick time e.g multidimensional aptitude battery, the cognitive abilities test, SATs
Allows large samples to be measured, but the examiner has less opportunity to establish a rapport, gain cooperation and maintain interest.
20
Q
What are individual tests? Give examples
A
These are a lot more flexible. They include the Stanford-Binet test and the WAIS and WISC
21
Q
Describe the Stanford Binet test
A
The American adaptation of the Binet Simon test. It was adapted by Terman. Currently in SB5 Criticised for not being comparable for all age ranges and for not being usable on very young preschoolars due to test difficulty. Useful for assessment in young children, adolescences and young adults
22
Q
Who was Yerkes?
A
Was appointed by the APA to discover how psychology could help the war effort. Adapted the Stanford Binet test to groups. Created alpha and beta subcomponents, Results ranged from A+ to D-
23
Q
What was the alpha test?
A
Created by Yerkes. Used on literates and tests cognitive abilities, oral and written language and practical judgement.
24
Q
What was the beta test?
A
Created by Yerkes. Used on non-English or poor English speakers. They were told to complete maze tasks, scan symbols and undertake geometric construction
25
Who was Weschler?
He believed that "g" was too narrow. Developed the WISC for 7-16 year olds and the WAIS for 16+. The 1981 revision was the WAIS-R. There were 11 subsets, 6 verbal and 5 performance. Person recieves a full scale, verbal and performance IQ score
26
What were Weschler's verbal subsets?
1. Information (29 general knowledge questions) 2. Digit span (repeat forwards and backwards) 3. Vocab (define 35 words) 4. Arithmetic (14 arithmetic stories, measuring distraction and numerical reasoning) 5. Comprehension 6. Similarities
27
What were Weschler's performance subsets?
1. Picture completion. 2. Picture arrangement 3. Block design 4. Digit symbol. 5. Object assembly
28
What did Cajal do?
First to develop the modern conception of the brain as a machine made up of cells. He wanted to discover if we had some form of super neuron - we don't!!
29
What is encephalisation?
The encephalisation quotient is the extent the brain size of a species deviates from the expected brain size of that species. The cat is the standard for mammals. Humans EQ = 7.4 - 7.8. Cat EQ = 5.
30
What did Rothe and Dicke say?
The number of coritcal neurons and the conduction velocity correlated better with intelliegence than brain size
31
What did Wickett, Vernon and Lee say?
Suggested in vivo and actual brain size are more correlated to intelligence than head size.
32
What did Willerman et al discover?
40 students (20 high IQ, 20 low IQ) were given the WAIS-R and submitted to an MRI. Brain size and IQ are better correlates of intelligence (.35) than head size
33
What did Wickett do?
Placed participants in an MRI, performed the MAB and the WAIS-R. Measured head perimeter. Brain volume correlated .395, head size only .109.
34
What did Watson say?
He could take the children of parents of any background and make them into whatever profession
35
What is the difference between old and new studies of heredity?
Old studies give a much higher estimate of intelligence because smaller sample sizes were used and new samples mainly used white middle class people
36
What did Bouchard state after his twin and triplet studies?
Twins living apart are near identical on intelligence tests to those who are reared together. He suggested there was heritibility of up to 80%.
37
How did Kamin and Goldberger counter Bouchard's twin study results?
Twin studies over estimate the role of heretibility - it doesn't represent the entire population
38
What is Mackintosh's theory of Associative mating?
Associative mating effects genetic heritability. Genetics is based on the assumption that mating is random, this doesn't happen! We should therefore make our estimates of heritability more conservative (between 40 and 80)
39
What were the four main factors effecting intelligence?
1. Biological factors such as nutrition e.g. breast feeding
2. Family - the unique (unshared) effects have the largest part of environmental influence
3. Education - if you're intelligence you're more likely to go to school, increasing intelligence
4. Culture - socioeconomic status
40
What is culture?
The practices that belong to a particular group or society. The way we construct our view of the self and our world is culturally driven. Intelligence is dependent on value laden judgements such as appropriateness. In england a person will thrive if they're clever, sensible and quick
41
What is decontextualisation?
Western thinking is based on classical Greek philosophy. Decontextualisation is the ability to detach onself from a situation and think abstractly about it. This was key to industrialisation and has become a signal of intelligence
42
What is quantification?
We want to quantify intelligence. Reification is making an abstract concept measurable.
43
In what way are African views on intelligence different to Western?
They believe in social cohesion, cooperation and responsibility. They blur the distinction between intelligence and social competence. They don't separate cognitive speed and social responsibility. IN kenya there are 4 parts to intelligence, with Western intelligence corresponding to only one (Reiko)
44
Describes Sternberg's study in Africa
85 children, all infected with a parasite. Given a test of knowledge of herbal medicines and a story of an illness and asked for a cure. There was a direct negative correlation between medicine knowledge and academic performance. Time spent developing academic skills is time away from practical skills. Culture dictates the proportion of time spent on academic or practical skills
45
What intelligences transcend culture?
Mental processes underlying intelligence, ability to recognise and define problems, formulate strategies and solve/adapt.
46
How produced the "bell curve"? What did they argue?
Hernstein and Murray. They argued towards heritability (40< IQ < 80). They suggested the cultural inferiority of certain cultural groups. Argued for a general factor that underlies IQ tests and that IQ is stable over time. They also argued that IQ tests were a good representation of intelligence.
47
What negative impacts did "The Bell Curve" have on psychology?
It was regarded as neo-nazi. Stated that money spent to help the disadvantaged should actually support the highly intelligent. Argue the decrease in a country's intelligence is due to unintelligent people having more children and the increase in immigration.
They argued for an increase in both positive and negative eugenics.
48
Describe sterilisation
Laughlin listed types of people who were to be sterilised - "feeble-minded, criminal, epileptic, blind, deformed and dependent"
42,000 people were sterilised between 1941 and 1943.
In 1948 the UN said everyone had a right to a family
49
What are longitudinal studies?
Track the participants for a long period of time. They are the preferred technique but are difficult as life spans 70 years +
50
What are cross-sectional studies?
People of different ages are examined at a moment in time
51
What are generational/cohort effects?
People who passed teenage years in war or depression may differ from older or younger people because of those reasons, not their intelligence
52
What did Deary discover about the association between cognitive and educational achievement?
Performed a 5 year longitudinal study of 70,000 children. General intelligence contributes to success on all the 25 academic studies tested. Girls showed no advantage in "g" but performed better on all subjects except physics
53
Describe the Seattle Longitudinal Study
Performed by Shaie. 5000 participants were tested at 7 year intervals. Listed 7 factors associated with reduced risk of cognitive decline in old age
54
What were Shaie's 7 factors?
Lower CVD and other cognitive diseases. Favourable environment e.g. high socio-economic status. Involvement in complex, stimulating activities. Flexible personality style. Spouse of high cognitive status. Maintenance of high perceptual processing speeds. Satisfaction with accomplishments
55
Describe the Scottish Mental Survey
87498 children took part. DEARY traced the survivors 66 years later. This is the longest test-retest interval. The IQ score correlated .73. Showed that IQ was stable.
56
Describe the Christchurch Health and Development Study
1265 children studied at birth, 4 months, 1 year and at annual intervals to 16 and at 18, 21, 25. IQ is unrelated to crime, mental health, sexual behaviours and substance dependence. Strong relationship between later educational and occupational outcomes
57
What is the Flynn Effect?
Each generation is more clever than the last, according to 15 countries. There is the largest increase in non-verbal, culture reduced tests such as Raven's.
(STATS test scores have decreased - does IQ not mean g?)
58
What did Sundert discover in Norway?
The Flynn Effect has come to an end in Norway. This was hypothesised to be due to height (nutrition) but this related to the upper half of the distribution, whereas IQ is increasing in the lower half.
59
Describe Guilford's structure of intellect model
Guilford rejects the idea of a single factor approached. Based on factor analysis. Different intellectual abilities are organised along 3 dimensions - 6 operations, 6 contents and 5 products. This is the 180 intellectual abilities theory.
60
Who was Gardner?
Argued the human mind is better thought of as a series of relatively separate faculties. 8 intelligences (possibly 9)
Developed the "every child matters" theory
61
What did Thorndike say about intelligence?
We have 3 facets to intelligence. Mechanical, abstract and social
62
What is emotional intelligence?
The ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge. It is the ability to regulate emotions that enable emotional and intellectual growth
63
Who was Goleman?
High IQ isn't a predictor of later life success. Schools that were aware of this produced happier, more rounded individuals that attain better academic results.
64
What did Sternberg say about "g"?
The fact that there are hundreds of tests showing a general factor might reflect bias in the way the studies were designed. "g" is broad, but not general.
65
Describe Sternberg's Triardic Theory
Provides middle ground theory of successful intelligence. Successfully intelligent people capitalise on their strengths and to compensate for their weaknesses. Intelligence arises from a balance between analytical, creative and practical
66
What is the lexical hypothesis?
Argues that the fact that there are socially relevent personality descriptors encoded in our language as single words is enough evidence for the existence of personality traits
67
Describe Spearman's factor analysis
means of identifying commonalities or factors in large amounts of data. Identifies the underlying factors which account for the majority of individual variation.
68
Who developed the 16 personality factors theory?
Cattell
69
What did Eysenck say about different personality traits?
3 basic personality types - psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism (PEN). These were based on the results of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
70
What are the Big Five?
Developed by Goldberg, McCrae and Costa. Operationalised by the NEO-PIR which has 25 facets. Has 5 domains - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism
71
What did Mischel discover? How did Epstein counteract this?
Mischel discovered personality only correlates with behaviour at about r = -.3. This led to the person situation debate. Epstein said that general behaviour predicts personality.
72
What is reliability?
how consitent scores are over the time/across equivalent versions of the test
73
What is validity?
How well the test measures what it's supposed to measure
74
What is Cronbach's Alpha?
The average of each permutation of the odd and even items. Gives a value between 0 and 1. 0.6 is poor, 0.8 is good
75
What is Criterion validity?
scores derived from a test are found to correspond to those derived from another similar test. This is predictive validity
76
What is discriminant validity?
Scores don't correspond to another dissimilar test.
77
Describe Subjective Well Being
3 components - positive effects, negative effects (PANAS) and satisfaction with life (SWLS). Gives a cognitive evaluation of life. Questioned on a scale of 1 to 7. Creates a scale of -1 to 10.
78
What is psychological/eudomonic well being?
More prescriptive approach as participant is no longer deciding what is a good life. Ryff - we should judge on personal growth, autonomy, positive relationships, self acceptance, purpose and environmental mastery.
Correlates with SWB at .7
79
What is anhodenia?
the absence of positive aspects.
80
Why is positive psychology important?
We cannot study the negative alone as disorders are on a continuum and it could be just as important to discover why there is an absence of the positive. The absence of the positive leads to disorder over and above the negative.
81
What is a cataclysmic event?
Doesn't fit in with other events, a different model of stress is required. Involves a huge loss of resources and lots of people undergoing the event at the same time
82
What is the Yerkes Dobson Law?
Arousal is on a bell curve
83
What is the theory behind objective life events?
Different naturally occurring life events have a varying impact on stress. The effects are additive.
84
Describe Holmes and Rahe's experiment
5000 people were told to come up with stressful life events and these were organised into 45 categories. Then asked students to rate each event on the stress it caused. They argued that life events were additive due to the hormonal response they produce
85
Describe Selye's theory of stress
Resistence to stress lowers immediately after the stressor. The body then motivates resistance (it adapts) but resistance has a limited capacity, leading to exhaustion
86
What were the downfalls of Selye's experiment?
Bear in the woods example. Stress can't be a simple stimulus reaction because we respond to different stimuli in different ways. Stress is our own interpretation
87
Describe Speisman's gruesome film experiment
People were either told a film was for education, exciting or told that they should empathise with the pain. Groups were differenently stressed - interpretation determined the reaction.
88
Describe Lazarus' cognitive model of how appraisals interact with events to determine stress
The primary appraisal is interpreted by the individual. The secondary appraisal is a reflection of our internal and external resources. Stress occurs when threat, harm or challenge exceeds out internal/external resources.
89
What is social support?
a management process - the way people manage the psychological and material resources available through their social networks to enhance their coping with stressful events, meet their social needs and achieve their goals.
90
What was Durkheim's study?
Studied the breakdown of social ties, family and community that occurred when workers moved to industrialised areas. Suicide was higher
91
What is the structural definition of social support?
It is an objective network. Requires interconnectedness and integration
92
What is functional support?
Emphasises the functions the networks provide. Focusses on instrumental, informational and emotional help
93
What was Bolger's experiment on perceived and received social support?
Studied couples taking a legal exam. When support is provided but known there is an increase in depression. Worst situation was when partner said support was given but it wasn't. Best was when support was given but they didn't know it - this is support gained without the social costs.
94
Describe Seligman's learned helplessness
depressed people appraise negative situations as internal, global and stable.
95
What is the vulnerability model?
States that the person causes the onset of depression.
96
What is the pathoplasticity model?
States that the person affects the onset, progress and severity of depression
97
What is the common causes model?
A common factor (e.g. environment) causes both personality and depression
98
What is the scar model?
depression causes personality post depression
99
What is the spectrum model?
depression is on a scale
100
List areas that correlate with gratitude
Life satisfaction (.44). Positive relationships (.43). Depression (-.42). Happiness (.51). Stress (-.34)
In Pakistan positive relationships correlate .68
101
How much does gratitude correlate with well being?
34% when with the Big Five. 9% of well being is donnated by gratitude alone
102
How does coping relate to gratitude?
It acts as a mechanism linking gratitude and well being. It mediates 51% of the relationship between gratitude and stress
103
How does gratitude affect appraisals of help?
Grateful people see help as more costly, valuable and altruistic.
104
What is genetic/biological determinism?
Disregards environmental factors in the hunt to find a genetic/biological basis of psychosis.
105
What is the adaptionist model?
natural selection leads to mechanisms that produce psychopathology. High prevalence across cultures. However there is no heterogeneity of depressoin
106
What is dysregulation?
States that normal (adaptive) mechanisms dysfunction in given contexts e.g those governing normal mood functioning.
107
What is the individual differences approach to well being?
natural selection leads to an optimally functioning system, but there is normal distribution about this leading to some being at risk
108
Attachment theory
The parent acts as a secure base from which exploration takes place. Threat activates attachment systems and proximity-seeking behaviour. Contact with the attachment figure lowers distress. Child internalises interactions with the caregiver as it develops, giving an internal symbolic representation of the attachment figure. Provides the origins of affect regulation
109
What was the strange situation test?
Children given 20 minute exposure to an unfamiliar situation. Highlighted 4 different attachment systems - securely, insecure avoidant, insecure ambivalent and disorganised attachment
110
Describe Speisman's gruesome film experiment
People were either told a film was for education, exciting or told that they should empathise with the pain. Groups were differenently stressed - interpretation determined the reaction.
111
Describe Lazarus' cognitive model of how appraisals interact with events to determine stress
The primary appraisal is interpreted by the individual. The secondary appraisal is a reflection of our internal and external resources. Stress occurs when threat, harm or challenge exceeds out internal/external resources.
112
What is social support?
a management process - the way people manage the psychological and material resources available through their social networks to enhance their coping with stressful events, meet their social needs and achieve their goals.
113
What was Durkheim's study?
Studied the breakdown of social ties, family and community that occurred when workers moved to industrialised areas. Suicide was higher
114
What is the structural definition of social support?
It is an objective network. Requires interconnectedness and integration
115
What is functional support?
Emphasises the functions the networks provide. Focusses on instrumental, informational and emotional help
116
What was Bolger's experiment on perceived and received social support?
Studied couples taking a legal exam. When support is provided but known there is an increase in depression. Worst situation was when partner said support was given but it wasn't. Best was when support was given but they didn't know it - this is support gained without the social costs.
117
Describe Seligman's learned helplessness
depressed people appraise negative situations as internal, global and stable.
118
What is the vulnerability model?
States that the person causes the onset of depression.
119
What is the pathoplasticity model?
States that the person affects the onset, progress and severity of depression
120
What is the common causes model?
A common factor (e.g. environment) causes both personality and depression
121
What is the scar model?
depression causes personality post depression
122
What is the spectrum model?
depression is on a scale
123
List areas that correlate with gratitude
Life satisfaction (.44). Positive relationships (.43). Depression (-.42). Happiness (.51). Stress (-.34)
In Pakistan positive relationships correlate .68
124
How much does gratitude correlate with well being?
34% when with the Big Five. 9% of well being is donnated by gratitude alone
125
How does coping relate to gratitude?
It acts as a mechanism linking gratitude and well being. It mediates 51% of the relationship between gratitude and stress
126
How does gratitude affect appraisals of help?
Grateful people see help as more costly, valuable and altruistic.
127
What is genetic/biological determinism?
Disregards environmental factors in the hunt to find a genetic/biological basis of psychosis.
128
What is the adaptionist model?
natural selection leads to mechanisms that produce psychopathology. High prevalence across cultures. However there is no heterogeneity of depressoin
129
What is dysregulation?
States that normal (adaptive) mechanisms dysfunction in given contexts e.g those governing normal mood functioning.
130
What is the individual differences approach to well being?
natural selection leads to an optimally functioning system, but there is normal distribution about this leading to some being at risk
131
Attachment theory
The parent acts as a secure base from which exploration takes place. Threat activates attachment systems and proximity-seeking behaviour. Contact with the attachment figure lowers distress. Child internalises interactions with the caregiver as it develops, giving an internal symbolic representation of the attachment figure. Provides the origins of affect regulation
132
What was the strange situation test?
Children given 20 minute exposure to an unfamiliar situation.
133
Describe a securely attached individual
The attachment figure is used as a secure base from which to explore. There is a positive reunion response. 62% of the population
134
Describe an insecure avoidant individual
explore with very little reference to attachment figure, avoidant reunion (15%). Linked to minimisation of expressions effect
135
Describe an insecure ambivalent individual
Little exploration, distressed at separation but hard to settle after reunion (9%)
136
Describe a disorganised attachment
contradictory, misdirected or sterotyped behaviour (15%)
137
What is hyperactivation?
Behavioural and cognitive strategies for maintaining proximity, Overdependent and clingy, controlling or coercive behaviour
138
What is deactivation?
Inhibition or suppression of proximity seeking. Avoids threat and detaches oneself from others
139
Attachment disorders - inhibited type
Failure to initiate or respond appropriately to social interaction. Hyper vigilance and ambivalence. Characteristic of abuse/neglect
140
Attachment disorders - dis inhibited type
Indiscriminant socialibity. Over familiarity with strangers. Characteristic of institutional upbringings
141
What is the involuntary defeat strategy?
Genetically hard-wired reaction to defeat. Signals submissive, no threat status.
142
Entrapment
Being trapped in an aversive situation with no option of escape. Accounts of the dysregulation of the IDS
143
What is involuntary winning strategy?
Includes increased self-confidence, feelings of mastery and euphoria
