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EPA Revision > Revision > Flashcards

Revision Flashcards

1
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

A variable manipulated by a researcher

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2
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

A variable that measures the effect that manipulating another variable has on

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3
Q

What is variance?

A

An estimate of the variability (spread) of a set of data

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4
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A variable that affects the outcome being measured as well as, or instead of the independent variable

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5
Q

How do you calculate degrees of freedom for one sample?

A

DF = n - 1

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6
Q

How do you calculate degrees of freedom for two samples?

A

DF = n1 + n2 where n is sample size

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7
Q

What is meant by degrees of freedom?

A

Degrees of freedom are the maximum number of logically independent values, which are values that have the freedom to vary, in the data sample

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8
Q

3 qualities of a mean is…

A
  • the sum of all scores divided by the number of scores
  • the value from which the scores deviate least
  • a hypothetical value that doesn’t have to be a value in the data set
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9
Q

What does a z-score indicate?

A

A z-score indicates the number of standard deviations a score is from the mean

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10
Q

What is partial eta squared?

A

A measure of effect size

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11
Q

4 Assumptions for normally distributed data

A
  • the distribution is symmetrical about the mean
  • the values for the mean, mode and median are the same
  • there are scores both above and below 2 standard deviations
  • approximately 68% of scores fall within +/- 1 standard deviation
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12
Q

What is a positive skew?

A

A frequency distribution in which low scores are most frequent

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13
Q

What is a negative skew?

A

A frequency distribution in which high scores are the most frequent

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14
Q

What is platykurtic distribution?

A

A frequency distribution in which there are too many scores at the extremes of the distribution

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15
Q

What is standard error a measure of?

A

The variability of sample estimates of a parameter

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16
Q

What is the relationship between standard error and sample size?

A

Standard error decreases as the sample size increases

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17
Q

What does 95% confidence interval of the mean suggest?

A

95 out of 100 confidence intervals will contain the population mean

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18
Q

What is p?

A

The probability of observing a test statistic at least as big as the one we have if there were no effect in the population

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19
Q

What is a type I error?

A

Occurs when we conclude there is an effect in the population when there is not

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20
Q

What is a type II error?

A

Occurs when we conclude that there is not an effect in the population when there is

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21
Q

Assumptions of parametric tests

A

Normality
Homogeneity
Linearity
Independence
Interval or ratio data
Random sampling
No extreme scores

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22
Q

What does the bonferroni correction do?

A

Corrects a family wise error

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23
Q

How many variables are there in a one-way repeated measures?

A

Only one independent variable and only one dependent variable

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24
Q

How many dependent variables are needed for an ANOVA to be conducted?

A

There must only be one dependent variable at interval level or higher

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25
Q

How many levels in an independent variable must there be for an ANOVA to be used?

A

There must be 3 or more levels in one independent variable

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26
Q

What do unplanned comparisons test?

A

They test every possibility that is, compare each condition to each other

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27
Q

What does mauchly’s test indicate in a repeated measures ANOVA?

A

Indicates whether there is a significant difference between the variances of the conditions

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28
Q

What do tests of significance like ANOVA look at?

A

The probability that the samples are from the same population

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29
Q

What does a non-significant levene test mean?

A

The assumption of homogeneity of variance has not been violated

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30
Q

What does a non-significant levene test mean?

A

The assumption of homogeneity of variance has not been violated

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31
Q

When is a test significant with an alpha level of .05?

A

If the p value is less than .05

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32
Q

What post hoc would you run for a Kruskall-Wallis test with significant results?

A

Mann Whitney

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33
Q

What post hoc would you run for a significant Friedman test?

A

Wilcoxon

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34
Q

How do you know how many post hoc pairwise comparisons to make?

A

Use the formula n(n-1)/2 where n is the number of groups

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35
Q

How to calculate a new alpha level

A

Divide .05 by number of pairwise comparisons

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36
Q

What is the effect size for a wilcoxon test?

A

The z statistic divided by the square root of the number of observations

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37
Q

What is the non-parametric alternative to the one-way between-subjects ANOVA?

A

Kruskal Wallis

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38
Q

What is the kruskal wallis test used for?

A

To compare more than two independent groups

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39
Q

What is the non-parametric alternative for a one-way repeated-measures ANOVA?

A

Friedman

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40
Q

What is the test statistic based on for kruskal Wallis?

A

The ranks of the groups

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41
Q

What is the test statistic based on for friedmans test?

A

The sum of ranks

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42
Q

When do you use post hoc tests?

A

When you did not generate specific hypotheses before the experiment

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43
Q

When the between groups variance is a lot larger than the within-groups variance, the F value is ____ and the likelihood of such a result occurring because sampling error is _____

A

Large; low

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44
Q

What is the main effect?

A

The overall effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable

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45
Q

What does a significant value for Mauchlys test mean?

A

The assumption of sphericity has been violated

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46
Q

What should follow a violated assumption of sphericity?

A

The greenhouse-geisser or huynh-feldt correction

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47
Q

What is the primary use of a two way repeated measures ANOVA?

A

To assess the impact of two independent variables on a single dependent variable with repeated measures

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48
Q

What does the interaction effect test?

A

Whether the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on the level of the other independent variable

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49
Q

What is a key assumption of a two way repeated measures ANOVA?

A

There must be sphericity for both independent variables

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50
Q

What follows a significant interaction effect found in a two way ANOVA?

A

Post hoc tests

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51
Q

What is a significant main effect for one independent variable in a two way ANOVA?

A

Indicates that the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable differs across the levels of the other independent variable

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52
Q

What is the purpose of the bonferroni correction?

A

To adjust the significance threshold to control the overall probability of making type I errors when performing multiple tests

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53
Q

Planned comparisons vs post hoc

A

Planned comparisons focus on the specific hypothesis set before the study, while post hoc tests explore all possible comparisons after the data has been analysed

54
Q

When is it appropriate to use post hoc tests?

A

When you have no specific hypotheses in mind and want to explore all possible pairwise comparisons

55
Q

What is statistical power?

A

The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis

56
Q

What is the relationship between effect size and statistical power?

A

As effect size increases, statistical power increases

57
Q

What is a core principle of open science?

A

Sharing data, materials and methods publicly

58
Q

What platform is commonly used for open science to share research data and materials?

A

Open science framework

59
Q

What does replication crisis refer to?

A

The inability to reproduce the results of published studies

60
Q

What does reproducibility mean?

A

To repeat a study using the same data and methods

61
Q

A reason for replication crisis?

A

Publication bias towards positive findings

62
Q

What can improve reproducibility of research in psychology?

A

Sharing data and analysis scripts openly, using the open science framework

63
Q

What research practice permits testing of cause and effect relationship?

A

Experimental research

64
Q

What is the main purpose of random assignment?

A

To eliminate the influence of confounding variables

65
Q

An example of a continuous variable

A

Statistics test score

66
Q

Relationship between effect size and statistical power

A

As effect size increases, statistical power increases

67
Q

What represents a measure of central tendency?

A

Median

68
Q

In a between subjects design participants are assigned to…

A

Multiple groups

69
Q

I’m a two way ANOVA the interactions refers to what?

A

The combined effect of both independent variables on the dependent variable differs across

70
Q

What does the confidence interval provide information about?

A

The range of values within the true population parameter

71
Q

What is the interval scale?

A

The interval scale has equal intervals between values but no absolute zero

72
Q

What is a disadvantage of the within-subjects design?

A

Order effects

73
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

A measure of how spread out the scores are in a data set

74
Q

What does ANOVA compare?

A

The means of three of more groups

75
Q

What does the F-ratio in ANOVA test?

A

The ratio of between group variance to within-group variance

76
Q

What is the non-parametric equivalent of a one-way between groups ANOVA?

A

Wilcoxon test

77
Q

Post hoc tests determine what?

A

Which specific group means differ from each other

78
Q

What does the assumption of homogeneity of variance mean?

A

The variance within each group is approximately equal

79
Q

How many independent variables are examined in a two way anova?

A

2

80
Q

What is statistical power?

A

The probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis

81
Q

What does not have a direct affect on statistical power?

A

The hypothesis

82
Q

What is the non-parametric equivalent to a within subjects one way ANOVA?

A

Friedmans test

83
Q

What is a familywise error?

A

The probability of making at least one type I error across all in multiple comparisons

84
Q

How do you control familywise errors?

A

Apply a bonferroni correction

85
Q

What are examples measures of central tendency ?

A

Mean
Median
Mode

86
Q

If a score in a data set has a Z-score of 0 this means

A

The score has a value equal to the mean of that data set

87
Q

What is sampling distribution?

A

A distribution of statistics obtained by selecting all the possible samples of a specific size from a population

88
Q

What is standard error?

A

The standard deviation for the distribution of sample means

89
Q

What is sampling error?

A

the discrepancy, or amount of error, between a sample statistic and its corresponding population parameter

90
Q

Of what is p the probability?

A

P is the probability of observing a test statistic at least as high as as the one we have if there were no effect in the population

91
Q

When can sphericity be assumed?

A

When the mauchly’s test is non-significant

92
Q

What is a measure of effect size for a between-groups one-way ANOVA?

A

ETA squared

93
Q

What is the test statistic?

A

Variance explained by the model / variance not explained by the model = effect / error

94
Q

What does an ANOVA compare?

A

The amount of variance explained by our explained by our experiment with the variance that is unexplained

95
Q

A frequency distribution in which low scores are most frequent is said to be…

A

Postively skewed

96
Q

When are non-parametric tests used?

A

The assumptions of parametric tests have not been met

97
Q

When you generated specific hypotheses about this before the experiment what do you use?

A

Planned comparisons

98
Q

In a multifactorial ANOVA what is the main effect?

A

The effect of one of your independent variables on the dependent variable, ignoring the effects of all other independent variables

99
Q

What is an effect size?

A

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of an effect

100
Q

What is statistical power?

A

The probability that a test will detect an effect when there is one

101
Q

What is a sample?

A

A smaller but representative collection of units from a population used to make inferences about that population

102
Q

What is a population?

A

The collection of units to which we want to generalise a set of findings or a statistical model

103
Q

Why are statistical models used?

A

To represent what is happening in the real world

104
Q

What is a deviation?

A

The difference between the mean and an actual data point

105
Q

How can deviations be calculated?

A

By taking each score and subtracting the mean from it

106
Q

Sum of squared measures is a measure of what?

A

Variability

107
Q

What does the result of the t-test depend on?

A

The size of the difference between the means
The variability in the data

108
Q

Limitations of p-values

A

They are not standardised
different sample sizes will yield different p-values for the same effect magnitude
A large study will detect small effects that could be non-significant in a smaller study

109
Q

What is an effect size?

A

A standardised measure of the size of an effect meaning it’s comparable across studies

110
Q

Different measures of effect size are…

A

Cohens d
eta squared
Partial eta squared

111
Q

If there are outliers in the data what can be done?

A

Transform the data set
Change the outlier itself

112
Q

What is analysis of variance?

A

Parametric test statistic that allows us to test if 3 or more sample means come from the same population

113
Q

Which assumption check is needed for between designs?

A

Levene’s test

114
Q

Which assumption test is needed for a within design?

A

Mauchly’s/ test of sphericity

115
Q

What do ANOVAs compare

A

The variance between groups with the variance within groups

116
Q

What does it mean when F increases?

A

The more likely it is that the groups are not from the same population

117
Q

What is levene’s test used for?

A

To assess the equality of variances

118
Q

What is the Mauchly’s test of sphericity?

A

A test only relevant to within-design anova. Asks if the data meets the additional assumption that the variances of the differences between the conditions are roughly equal.

119
Q

What does sphericity mean?

A

Equality of variance of the differences between all combinations of the groups or levels

120
Q

What effect size is used for between groups ANOVA?

A

Eta squared

121
Q

What effect size is used for within groups ANOVA?

A

Partial eta squared

122
Q

How can you define degrees of freedom?

A

As the number of independent pieces of information you make to make that calculation

123
Q

The difference between calculating df1 and df2 is for a two way anova …

A

Df1 = k (number of levels) - 1
Df2 = n - k

124
Q

How do you calculate df in a one way anova?

A

Df1 = k (n of levels) - 1
Df2 = (n [number of observations] - 1) - (N [number of participants] - 1) - (k - 1)

125
Q

How do you calculate df in a one way anova?

A

Df1 = k (n of levels) - 1
Df2 = (n [number of observations] - 1) - (N [number of participants] - 1) - (k - 1)

126
Q

The assumptions for ANOVA are?

A

DV data on interval or ratio scale
Sampling distribution of means is normal
Homogeneity of variance (levene - between, Mauchly’s within)

127
Q

What would you use after a significant friedmans test?

A

Wilcoxon with a bonferroni correction

128
Q

What test would you use for a significant kruskal Wallis?

A

Mann Whitney with a bonferroni correction

129
Q

When do we use non-parametric tests?

A

DV data is nominal or ordinal
Data are not normally distributed
Unequal variance

130
Q

What are the limitations of null hypothesis significance testing?

A

Over reliance in psychology on p-values alone for determining importance effects
The p value is not a standardised index; it reflects the size of the sample as well as the size of the effect
A small study can produce a non-significant result with the same effect size as a large study that is significant because of the difference in sample size

131
Q

What is a priori power analysis?

A

Conducted prior to conducting research and is typically used to determine an appropriate sample size to achieve adequate power to detect an effect

132
Q

What is post hoc power analysis?

A

Conducted after a study has been conducted and used the obtained sample size and effect size to determine what the power was in the study

EPA Revision (1 decks)

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