Review set 3 Flashcards
Name 3 Monosaccharides
Great Girl Friend
Glucose, Galactose, Fructose
Name Disaccharides
Sucrose which is the combination of Glucose and fructose
Name 3 polysaccherides
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose
Carbohydrates are
sugars and starches
What are Monosaccharides
“single sugars” – General formula = CnH2nOn
3 types (based on number of carbon atoms)
Trioses (3 carbons) = C3H6O3
Pentoses (5 carbons) = C5H10O5
Hexoses (6 carbons) = C6H12O
What are Disaccharides
2 sugars
What are polysaccharides
Many sugars
Monosaccharides example in Animals and plants
Glucose, galactose, fructose
Animals: Glucose: Chemical fuel for cellular respiration (ATP)
Plants: Fructose: Fruit sugar (makes them sweet)
Disaccharides example in Animals and plants
Maltose, lactose, sucrose
Animal: Lactose: Milk sugars for feeding young
Plants: Sucrose: form of sugar transported from leaves to other locations
Polysaccharides example in Animals and plants
Starch, glycogen, cellulose (all made of glucose, but put together differently = different structure = different functions)
Animals: Glycogen: Stores glucose in liver/ muscle cells
Plants: Cellulose: makes up plant cell walls (𝛽-glucose subunits; are linear and have high tensile strength)
Starch: stores glucose; made of α-glucose subunits (2 forms: amylose and amylopectin)
Order in how saccharides go? ie first second third
Processes used to help with making and breaking
Monosaccharides —> Disaccharides —> Polysaccharides
—–> Condensation and Hydrolysis
Lipids are
Oils and fats
Uses for Lipids
Used in long-term energy storage
Stored as triglycerides in adipose (fat) cells
Can be hydrolyzed and used to fuel cellular respiration to make ATP (if little to no glucose is available) – used in link reaction to make acetyl CoA
Also provide insulation (blubber)/ cushioning, and act as structural components of cell membranes (phospholipids)
Contain twice as much energy (per gram) as carbohydrates, but are insoluble in water as their structures are dominated by nonpolar covalent bonds
What are lipids made of
glycerol bonded to up to 3 fatty acid chains
Making or Breaking saccharides
Condensation reactions create ester linkages between glycerol and fatty acids. Hydrolysis reactions break ester linkages between glycerol and fatty acids.
Fatty acids in lipids are
hydrocarbon chains that vary in length (number of carbons, usually 11-23) and in the number and locations of double bonds
All fatty acids have
a carboxyl group at one end (COOH) and a methyl group (CH3) at the other end (called the “omega” end)
All Fatty acids are either
saturated or unsaturated
Saturated fatty acids everything you need to know/ what does the structure look like?
Saturated fatty acids have no C=C double bonds (they are “saturated,” or “maxed out” with the carbon atoms being bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible – they form linear fatty acid chains)
Linear/ straight (no C=C double bonds)
Animal fats are saturated fats
Diets rich in contribute to CHD, high LDL cholesterol, atherosclerosis, hypertension, obesity, clots/ thrombosis
Unsaturated fatty acids
have one or more C=C double bonds between carbon atoms (forming bends or “kinks” in the fatty acid chains) Bent/ kinked
Monounsaturated fatty acids have one C=C double bond
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more C=C double bonds
Omega-3 fatty acids (1st C=C double
bond is on 3rd carbon from omega/ methyl end)
Omega-6 fatty acids (1st C=C double bond is on
6th carbon from omega/ methyl end)
Note: C=C bonds with hydrogen atoms on SAME side = CIS
C=C bonds with hydrogen atoms on OPPOSITE sides = TRANS
HAS A BEND IN THE STURUCTURE
What does food proccessing do to Polyunsaturated fats?
Polyunsaturated fats are often hydrogenated (or partially hydrogenated) in food processing
Hydrogen atoms are added to the molecules, eliminating some (or all) of the C=C double bonds/ kinks and bends in the fatty acid chain (straightens, or partially straightens fatty acid molecule)
WHY? Higher melting temperatures (crispier french fries from hydrogenated oils due to higher oil temp, chocolate coatings/ baked goods etc. do not melt on shelves/ have longer shelf lives, “butters” are more spreadable etc.)
Cis vs Trans fat explain structure
Cis has a kink where it is double bonded trans does not have a kink where it is double bonded.
Why is trans fat problematic?
Trans double bonds are not fully recognized by enzymes that break down fats in the body (not the right shape!), causing them to remain in the bloodstream for extended amounts of time.
Trans fats in the diet ARE eventually incorporated into living tissues (as best as they can be), but because they are unnatural fats, they do not properly bind to natural enzymes etc. in the body, contributing to:
High cholesterol, heart disease, liver dysfunction, cardiovascular disease
What is BMI and How do you solve for it?
Body Mass Index
Based on weight AND height of a person (taller people, in general, weigh more)
Calculate using formula, nomogram, or online calculator
Formula 1 (metric): Weight (kg)/height (m)^2
Formula 2 (imperial): (Weight (lb)/height(in)^2) x703
Compare carbohydrates and lipids
Carbohydrates vs Lipids
Stored as glycogen (animals) and starch (plants) vs Stored as triglycerides (in adipose cells in liver/ muscle tissue)
Glycogen and starch are hydrolyzed to glucose when energy needed vs Triglycerides are hydrolyzed to glycerol and fatty acids when energy needed
Short-term energy storage (disrupt osmotic balance of tissues in large quantities) vs Long-term energy storage (hydrophobic, so do not disrupt osmotic balance and can be stored for long periods of time)
Twice the energy content (per unit mass/ per gram) of carbohydrates -Lipids = 9 calories per gram-Carbohydrates = 4 calories per gram)
Note: Proteins also contain 4 cal/ gram
Structure of ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
Structure of ADP
Adenosine diphosphate
Oxidation vs Reduction
LEO GOES GER
Oxidation vs Reduction
loss of electrons vs gain of electrons
loss of hydrogen atoms vs gain of hydrogen atoms
Gain of oxygen vs Loss of oxygen
Many C-O bonds formed vs Many C-H bonds formed
Compound formed has lower potential energy vs compound formed has higher potential energy
Summary of the Aerobic Cellular respiration
- Glycolysis breaks down glucose in the cytoplasm into ATP and pyruvate (PLOP)
Glucose is phosphorylated (using ATP), Lysis (splits into 2 molecules), each molecule is oxidized by NAD+ (NAD+ becomes NADH), ATP is formed (net gain = 2). “Leftover” two molecules = pyruvate - Pyruvate is actively transported into the mitochondrial matrix where it is decarboxylated and combines with coenzyme A in the link reaction to produce CO2, NADH + H+, and acetyl CoA (Acetyl CoA can also be produced using fatty acids or amino acids if little to no sugars)
- Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle (in the matrix) – the Krebs Cycle decarboxylates substrates to produce CO2, substrates are oxidized to provide electrons to NAD+ and FADH (they become NADH and FADH2), and substrate-level phosphorlation produces ATP (2)
- NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport chain (in the cristae/ inner mitochondrial membrane). Electrons pass down the chain to oxygen, the final electron acceptor. Oxygen, electrons, and hydrogen ions combine to form water.
- Proteins in the electron transport chain use the energy from electron movement to pump H+ ions from the matrix into the intermembrane space (creating a hydrogen ion concentration gradient).
- In chemiosmosis, H+ ions flow DOWN their concentration gradient (from the intermembrane space to the matrix) through ATP synthase proteins (in the cristae/ inner mitochondrial membrane). ATP synthase uses the energy from H+ movement to combine ADP + Pi, making ATP (34 ATP).
Glycolysis in the Aerobic cycle does
Glycolysis breaks down glucose in the cytoplasm into ATP and pyruvate (PLOP)
Glucose is phosphorylated (using ATP), Lysis (splits into 2 molecules), each molecule is oxidized by NAD+ (NAD+ becomes NADH), ATP is formed (net gain = 2). “Leftover” two molecules = pyruvate
Pyruvate is doing what in Aerobic cycle
Pyruvate is actively transported into the mitochondrial matrix where it is decarboxylated and combines with coenzyme A in the link reaction to produce CO2, NADH + H+, and acetyl CoA
Acetyl COA is doing what in Aerobic Cellular respiration
Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle (in the matrix) – the Krebs Cycle decarboxylates substrates to produce CO2, substrates are oxidized to provide electrons to NAD+ and FADH (they become NADH and FADH2), and substrate-level phosphorlation produces ATP (2)
NADH and FADH2 do what in Aerobic cellular respiration
donate electrons to the electron transport chain (in the cristae/ inner mitochondrial membrane). Electrons pass down the chain to oxygen, the final electron acceptor. Oxygen, electrons, and hydrogen ions combine to form water.
What is proteins role in Aerobic cellular respiration?
in the electron transport chain use the energy from electron movement to pump H+ ions from the matrix into the intermembrane space (creating a hydrogen ion concentration gradient).
What happens in chemosis
chemiosmosis, H+ ions flow DOWN their concentration gradient (from the intermembrane space to the matrix) through ATP synthase proteins (in the cristae/ inner mitochondrial membrane). ATP synthase uses the energy from H+ movement to combine ADP + Pi, making ATP (34 ATP).
Glycolysis breaks down
glucose in the cytoplasm into ATP and pyruvate
To regenerate NAD+ and keep glycolysis running, pyruvate…
pyruvate in the cytoplasm broken down into:
A. Pyruvate Lactate (animal cells/ humans) OR
B. Pyruvate Ethanol (alcohol) + CO2 (in plants, yeast, fungi, and bacteria cells) – this process is called FERMENTATION
Mitochondrial structure: Inner membrane (cristae)
Folded – increases SURFACE AREA for electron transport chains/ ATP Synthase/ chemiosmosis/ oxidative phosphorylation
Mitochondrial structure: Intermembrane space
Small – allows for rapid build up of H+ ions (protons) to create a gradient
Mitochondrial structure: Matrix (FLUID)
Fluid = Contains appropriate enzymes and pH for link reaction and Krebs Cycle
Mitochondrial structure: Outer membrane
Separates mitochondria from rest of cell and contains appropriate proteins to shuttle pyruvate into matrix from cytoplasm
Definition of Photosynthesis
is an anabolic process that uses water, carbon dioxide, and energy (light = sun) to create glucose (sugar) and oxygen
Things you need to know about photosynthesis
Pigments (protein molecules) absorb light energy
Light energy (electromagnetic radiation) travels in waves and is quantified in “packets” called photons
Visible light (400nm – 700nm) most important for photosynthesis
Different pigments (chlorophyll a = main pigment, carotenoids/ carotene, xanthophylls) have different structures so absorb different wavelengths of light
Red and blue = most absorbed/ most important for photosynthesis
Green = reflected (not absorbed)
The absorption spectrum for photosynthesis shows the amount of each wavelength absorbed by each pigment in photosynthesis. In general, it shows two “peaks” (at red and blue) with a “valley” in between at green (be able to diagram/ label this in general)
The action spectrum for photosynthesis shows the RATE of photosynthesis for each wavelength of light absorbed (be able to diagram/ label this in general)
There is a strong correlation between the action spectrum and (cumulative – all pigments) absorption spectrum for photosynthesis (more light absorbed = higher rate)
The light dependent reaction:
Light is absorbed by pigment chlorophyll a (blue and red absorbed; green reflected)
2. Photolysis: light energy used to split water molecule to supply electrons to photosystem II (PSII)
Oxygen gas is given off as a byproduct
3. Light absorbed by PSII “excites” electrons (and they “jump” to a higher energy level)
4. Excited electrons from PSII “caught” and delivered to an electron transport chain (#1)
5. Electrons move down the chain to photosystem I (PSI)
Movement of electrons used to pump H+ ions from the stroma INTO the thylakoid
Chemiosmosis: H+ ions move DOWN their concentration gradient (back into the stroma) through ATP Synthase proteins, generating ATP (Photophosphorylation – LIGHT powers the electron transport chain which aids in ATP production)
6. Light absorbed by PSI “excites” electrons (and they “jump” to a higher energy level)
7. Excited electrons from PSI “caught” and delivered to an electron transport chain (#2)
8. Electrons move down the chain to NADP reductase, which reduces NADP+ to NADPH+
The Light-Independent Reactions (the Calvin Cycle – in the stroma):
- Carbon Fixation Enzyme Rubisco adds CO2 (inorganic) to RuBP (5C compound) – “fixing” it (making it part of an organic compound) 6C compound is unstable and splits into two 3C compounds (G3P = glycerate-3-phosphate = first identifiable/ measurable product of carbon fixation/ light-independent reactions)
- Reduction G3P reduced to triose phosphate sugar by NADPH from light-dependent reactions (NADPH back to NADP+ again)
Requires ATP (from light-dependent reactions) - Regeneration of RuBP(Most) Triose phosphate and ATP used to regenerate RuBP (Some) Triose phosphate used to make/ store glucose (starch)
How do you measure rates of photosynthesis? Direct vs Indirect
Direct:
Oxygen production: from light-dependent reactions (count bubbles/ measure dissolved oxygen in water)
CO2 uptake: Calvin cycle (measure pH of water; more CO2 taken into plant = increase in pH of water)
Indirect:
Biomass Increase: more sugars = more tissues/ growth/ more stored carbohydrate
Limiting factors of photosynthesis?
Temperature:
As temperature increases so does rate of photosynthesis
Higher than a certain temperature enzymes denature and rates decrease
Light intensity:
As light intensity increases so does rate of photosynthesis become saturated and rate plateaus
CO2 concentration:
As CO2 concentration increases do does rate of photosynthesis until rubisco is saturated and rated plateaus
Chloroplast structure: Thylakoids (small, disc-shaped structures)
Small lumen/ space inside – allows for rapid accumulation of protons
Chloroplast structure: Grana (stacks of thylakoids)
Thylakoids in stacks – increases surface area for light absorption (more photosystems with chlorophyll)
Chloroplast structure: Stroma (fluid within the chloroplast/ OUTSIDE of thylakoids)
Contains appropriate enzymes and pH for light-independent reactions
Chloroplast structure: Double membrane (inner and outer membranes – from endocytosis)
Isolates enzymes etc. from other parts of plant cell
Draw a mitochondria right now and check it
check it
Mitochondria contain their own
Mitochondria also contain their own DNA and 70S ribosomes for replication and protein synthesis
wavelengths of light are in what unit?
nm
explain respiration/ respirometer experiments
know that an alkali (like KOH) is used to absorb CO2, so reduced volume is due to oxygen use Note: a soap bubble is usually
used to block the end of the
pipet; more O2 used = higher reduction in volume = soap bubble moves farther. Temperature MUST be kept constant to avoid volume changes due to temperature fluctuations
Explain the photosynthesis experiment
In photosynthesis experiments, if water needs to have CO2 removed you can BOIL it and then COOL it to do this.
Explain how Chromatography is used to separate mixtures
plant pigments - chlorophyll a,chlorophyll b, xanthophyll, and carotenes) A mixture is dissolved in a fluid (called the mobile phase) and passed through a static material (called the stationary phase) The different components (pigments) of the mixture travel at different speeds (due to variation in size/ polarity etc.), causing them to separate A retardation factor can then be calculated (Rf value = distance pigment travels ÷ distance solvent travels) - different pigments have different Rf values (can be used to identify pigments)
Two of the most common techniques for separating photosynthetic pigments are: Paper chromatography – uses paper (cellulose) as the stationary bed
Thin layer chromatography – uses a thin layer of adsorbent (e.g. silica gel) which runs faster and has better separation
Note: In LAB PRACTICAL #4, you separated photosynthetic pigments using
chromatography. The solvent moves up the paper and carries the pigments with it. Different pigments have different polarities/ solubilities/densities, so move at different rates. The distance a pigment moves divided by the distance the solvent moves (relative to the solvent) is the pigment’s Rf value. Each pigment has a different Rf value (can identify pigments based on Rf values).
Explain Calvin’s lollipop experiment
Green algae placed in “lollipop” container
Algae provided with radioactive carbon-14 and light (to carry out photosynthesis and incorporate radioactive C-14 into organic substances)
Note: Using and tracing radioactive C-14 was a new, technological advance at the time!
Chlorella samples were taken at different time periods after beginning experiment and “killed” (using heat/ alcohol to STOP metabolic reactions)
Carbon compounds (containing C-14) in each sample were separated by chromatography and then identified using autoradiography
By taking samples at different time periods, Calvin could identify the order in which the events of the light-independent reactions occurred. Results showed:
RuBP was initially phosphorylated
At the very beginning (within first 5 seconds of exposure), MORE G3P was radioactively labelled than any other compound (showing it was the first carboxylated/ stable product of the light-independent reactions)
After more time, triose phosphate was the NEXT compound to be radioactively labelled
Overall, specific carbon compounds are made in a specific sequence and this cycle of reactions regenerates RuBP to begin the process again
IF YOU DONT GET IT
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/lollipop-experiment.mp4
