review Flashcards
One of the most important intracellular process that requires energy
Formation of Peptide Linkages
How much energy stored in peptide bond?
500-5,000 cal
How much energy required to form 1 peptide linkage?
4 high-energy phosphate bonds (48,000 cal)
Ornithine Cycle converts ____ to _____.
ammonia to urea
What steps of Ornithine Cycle take place in the mitochondria?
CO2 + NH4 –> carbamoyl phosphate
carbamoyl phosphate + ornithine –> citrulline
What happens to fumarate in the ornithine cycle?
enters TCA cycle
What forms urea?
Arginine + H20 –> UREA + ornithine
Major Rate-Limiting Factor for almost all energy metabolism in the body
ADP
Best known stimuli for increasing rate of thyroid stimulating hormone
cold
How do thyroid levels affect energy levels?
Hypothyroid = Lethargic Hyperthyroid = energetic
High insulin promotes usage of what for energy?
carbohydrates
Low insulin promotes usage of what for energy?
fat
Vascular supply of Liver
High blood flow & Low vascular resistance
Effect of cirrhosis on blood flow
increase resistance
Effect of clot blocking portal vein
blockage of return blood from spleen & intestines: increase capillary pressure in intestinal wall –> loss of fluid –> death
Ascites
large amount of fluid in abdominal cavity
elevated pressure in hepatic veins causes
ascites
How is heme transported in the blood?
Transferrin
What happens to bilirubin secreted into the intestine?
converted to urobilinogen via bacterial action
Metabolic Syndrome
obesity insulin resistance fasting hyperglycemia increased lipid triglycerides decreased HDL levels HTN
Heme oxygenase catalyzes ____ to ____
heme to biliverdin
biliverdin –> ____ in the reticuloendothelial system
free (unconjugated) bilirubin
down-regulation of receptors
decreases target tissues responsiveness to hormones
up-regulation of receptors
increases target tissue responsiveness to hormones
calcium binds to ____
calmodulin
Lipid Soluble Hormones
adrenal and steroidal hormones
thyroid hormones
retinoid hormones
Vitamin D
Activated hormone receptor complex binds to what sequence of DNA?
Hormone Response Element
Somatotropes (acidophils)
Human Growth Factor
Corticotropes
ACTH
Thyrotropes
TSH
Gonadotropes
FSH & LH
Lactotropes
prolactin
What pump is on the basal membrane of thyroid cell?
Sodium Iodide Symporter (2:1)
What pump is on the apical membrane of thyroid cell?
Pendrin
chloride-iodide counter-transporter
Is T3 or T4 more active?
T3 (triiodothyronine) but T4 (thyroxine) is the major hormonal product
2 DIT =
Thyroxine (T4)
DIT + MIT =
triiodothyronine (T3)
Hyperthyroidism
causes: Graves' Disease, Adenoma Sx: high state of excitability intolerance to heat increased sweating mild to extreme weight loss varying degrees of diarrhea muscle weakness
Major Mineralocorticoid
Aldosterone
Effects of Aldosterone
increased sodium absorption by principal cells
increased K+ secretion by principal cells
increased H+ secretion by intercalated cells
(Increases ECF/Blood Volume)
Aldosterone secreted from
zona glomerulosa
outermost adrenal cortex
Decreased Blood Volume –> Decreased Renal Perfusion Pressure –>
increased renin secretion
Renin
activates angiotensinogen –> angiotensin I
(ACE converts angiotensin 1 –> angiotensin II
Angiotensin II
corticosterone –> ALDOSTERONE
Major Glucocorticoid
Cortisol
Glucocorticoids secreted from
Zona Fasciulata in adrenal cortex
Functions of Glucocorticoids
stimulates gluconeogenesis: “Adrenal Diabetes”
increase protein catabolism
mobilizes amino acids from extra hepatic tissues
enhances transfer of amino acids into hepatic cells
increases enzymes required to convert AAs to glucose
decrease glucose utilization by cells
increase Lipolysis
**Resolution of Inflammation & Inhibits Immune Response
Hypoadrenalism
1˚(Addison’s) due to injury of adrenal cortex
2˚ due to impaired fxn of pituitary gland
mineralocorticoid deficiency
glucocorticoid deficiency
melanin pigmentation
Hyperadrenalism
Cushing’s Disease
“Buffalo Torso”
If calcium intake is 1,000 mg/day - how much excreted in feces?
900
Hypocalcemia
carpopedal spasm ~6mg/dl
lethal ~4mg/dl
Active form of Vitamin D
1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
calcium-binding protein in the intestinal epithelium
calbindin
cholecalciferol (vit D3) where?
skin
Vit D3 to liver
25-hydroxycholecalciferol
where is Vitamin D activated?
in kidney via PTH
What does vitamin D do in the body?
promotes intestinal absorption of calcium