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Restless Earth Flashcards

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1
Q

List the four layers of the Earth

A

Inner core

Outer core

Mantle

Crust

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2
Q

What material/s does the mantle consist of?

A

Semi-molten rock and magma. The upper part is usually solid whereas further into the Earth it is more fluid.

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3
Q

Which two main metals is the centre of the Earth believed to be made of and what temperature can it reach?

A

Iron and Nickel

Temperatures up to 5500°C

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4
Q

Name 3 of the Earth’s tectonic plates

A

Any from: North American, Eurasian, Nazca, South American, AFrican, Antarctic, Indo-Australian and Pacific, Juan De Fuca

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5
Q

Where on Earth is there the densest occurence of earthquakes and volcanic activity? What nickname has this area earnt?

A

The margin around the Pacific plate tends to be the most active with regards to earthquakes and volcanic activity, it is nicknamed the Ring of Fire

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6
Q

List the four most notable features of an oceanic plate

A
  1. They are newer than continental, most less than 200million years old
  2. They are denser
  3. Are able to sink below continental plates
  4. Can be renewed and destroyed
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7
Q

What are the four main features of continental plates?

A
  1. They are older than oceanic plates, most over 1500 million years old
  2. They cannot sink below oceanic crust
  3. They are less dense than oceanic plates
  4. Cannot be renewed or destroyed
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8
Q

List the four different types of plate margin and describe the movement between them

A

Destructive subduction - An oceanic plate moving to subduct beneath a continental plate

Destructive collision - When two continental plates collide

Constructive - Two plates moving apart from one another

Conservative - When two plates slide along/past each other

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9
Q

Name an example of a destructive-subduction plate boundary

A

The Juan De Fuca plate (oceanic) subducts beneath the North American plate

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9
Q

Give an example of a destructive collision plate margin

A

The African and Eurasian plates (creates fold mountains, The Himalayas)

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10
Q

Name one example of a constructive plate boundary

A

Between the Antarctic and Indo-Australian plate/North American and Eurasian

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11
Q

What is one example of a conservative plate margin?

A

The Nazca and Indo-Australian plate boundary

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12
Q

What determines plate movement?

A

Convection currents in the mantle (circular movements of heat and fluid magma)

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13
Q

Which forms of tectonic/geological activity occurs at each plate margin?

A
  • Destructive-subduction: Volcanoes, earthquakes, fold mountains and ocean trenches
  • Destructive collision: Volcanoes, earthquakes and fold mountains
  • Constructive: Volcanoes
  • Conservative: Earthquakes
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14
Q

Explain how volcanic eruptions happen at destructive plate margins (4)

A

When an oceanic and continental plate collide at a destructive margin, the denser oceanic plate will subduct beneath the continental plate. Earthquakes and tremors may occur at this point due to the friction between both plates. Friction and heat from the mantle melts the oceanic plate into the magma, increasing pressure and forcing it upwards out of the opening with the least resistance.

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15
Q

What creates the conical volcano shape at a destructive subduction plate margin?

A

As more and more eruptions occur, the magma will cool and harden in a conical shape, sloping away from the main vent.

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16
Q

How do volcanoes occur at constructive plate boundaries? (4)

A

Convection currents ease oceanic plates apart over a long period of time. As the plate boundary widens, the viscous magma forces upwards and erupts underneath the sea. The magma will solidify as it cools, sometimes forming volcanic islands such as Hawaii or Iceland.

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17
Q

What causes an earthquake at a conservative plate margin? (4)

A

When the two plates such as the oceanic Pacific Plate and the continental North American plate slide past one another, they will catch on each other’s rugged edges, causing a huge build up of friction. The two plates can suddenly jolt into new positions, causing massive landmovements and seismic waves.

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18
Q

Describe the formation of fold mountains using three main points

A
  1. Geosynclines are huge depressions found naturally on the ocean floor
  2. Currents in the ocean (or sometimes via rivers) deposit sediment onto the seabed and in geosynclines
  3. When plates are forced together at destructive plate margins eitherside of a geosyncline, sedimentary layers are forced upwards by the pressure to form fold mountain peaks
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19
Q

How long does the formation of fold mountains tend to take?

A

65 million years

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20
Q

In what circumstances will an ocean trench be formed?

A

When two oceanic plates subduct into one another

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21
Q

Name the deepest ocean trench on Earth

A

The Mariana Trench (10,994 meters below sea level)

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22
Q

List 4 main ways people use fold mountain areas

A
  • Farming
  • Mining
  • Hydro-electric power
  • Tourism
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23
Q

How has faming in the Alps developed?

A
  • Traditionally transhumance dairy farming (Listock would graze on the slopes in summer, valleys in autumn/winter)
  • Now crop valley farming is prferred (On lower slopes soil is deeper and easier to maintain)
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24
Q

Why are fold mountains so useful for mining? (3)

A
  • The sedimentary rock folds upwards, forcing minerals and metals to the surface.
  • Thin soil and steep slopes provide easy access
  • Techniques such as adits and open cast mining may be used
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25
Q

Why are fold mountains so good for harnessing Hydro-Electric power? (3)

A
  • Steep V-shaped valleys are easy to dam and create fast currents
  • High rainfall
  • High river discharge from melting glaciers
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26
Q

Give the 6 main features of a strato/composite volcano

A
  • Formed from andesite (viscous lava) at destrictive subduction boundaries
  • Steep sided
  • Tall
  • Highly explosive
  • A lava plug acts as a plug, increasing pressure in the magma chamber
  • Lava erupts alongside gas, steam and pyroclastic surges
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27
Q

What are the 6 main features of a shield volcano?

A
  • Created from basalt (non-viscous) lava at constructive plate margins
  • Gently sloping sides
  • Wide
  • Not particularly explosive
  • Have formed islands and notable landforms eg. Hawaii, Iceland and the Mid-Atlantic ridge
  • Basalt lava will shoot quickly out of the main vent, often continously and unimpeded (there is no pyroclastic flow)
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28
Q

Name the three main states of a volcano

A
  • Active
  • Dormant
  • Extinct
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29
Q

Draw a labelled cross section of a composite volcano

A
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30
Q

What was the deadliest and most economically destructive volanic eruption to occur in the USA and when did it happen?

A

The eruption of Mount St. Helen’s in Washington on May 18th 1980 at 8:32am

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31
Q

In what mountain range is Mount St. Helen’s situated and on which plate boundary?

A

The Cascade Mountain Range in Washington State, where the Juan De Fuca (oceanic) subducts beneath the North American plate (continental) - destructive subduction

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32
Q

What geological occurences indicated that an eruption at Mount St. Helens was imminent? (3)

A
  • Minor earthquakes
  • Steam venting
  • Bulge on the west slope, created by a growing lava dome just below the surface grew at 6 feet per day
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33
Q

List 4 responses to the initial indication that an eruption was about to occur at Mount St.Helens

A
  • Scientists and media flocked to the area
  • A boost in tourism and memorabilia was produced to commemorate the first easily documented composite volcano eruption
  • The United States Geological Survey enforced an 8km exclusion zone (mostly ignored)
  • Harry Randall Truman, caretaker and resident of Mount St Helen’s Lodge rose to minor celebrity as he refused to leave his hope and famously said “if the mountain goes, I’m going with it”
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34
Q

What caused the 1980 Mount St. Helen’s eruption?

A

An earthquake measuring 5.1 on the richter scale triggered the biggest land slide ever recorded on the North West slope of the mountain. This displaced the cryptodome that has developed, releasing a high speed torrent of magma, hot ash, gas and rock in a huge pyroclastic flow.

35
Q

List the primary impacts of the Mount St.Helens eruption (6)

A
  • An eruption column rose 80,000 feet into the sky
  • 1.4million cubic yards of ash were released
  • The lateral bast caused a wipeout zone of 27km, forests were uprooted
  • 250 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles of railway and 185 miles of highway destroyed
  • Harry Truman died, alongside all 16 of his cats. David A Johnston hollered “Vancouver! Vancouver! This is it” into his radio before perishing on Coldwater ridge.
  • Total death toll: 57
36
Q

Give 5 impacts of the 1980 Mount St. Helen’s eruption that took longer to come into effect

A
  • Rainwater merged with ash to form fast-flowing lahars
  • Ash clogged air conditioning systems and blocked roads with drifts a metre deep (it travelled over 6 states)
  • Spirit lake became almost non-existent, eradicating 125km of prime trout fishing (previously a source of income/recreation)
  • Agricultural crops destroyed, industry suffered
  • 12 million salmon fingerlings died, 40,000 young salmon were lost when they swam through HEP turbine blades as reservoir levels were lowered to adapt for mudflows.
37
Q

What were the 4 first responses to the Mount St. Helens eruption?

A
  • The USA declared a state of emergency
  • All planes in North America were grounded
  • 2 million gas masks were issue
  • The army were deployed in helicopters
38
Q

List four longer term responses to the Mount St Helens eruption

A
  • Authorities estimate ash removal cost them $2.2million and took ten weeks
  • Over a thousand commercial flights were cancelled
  • Toutle river had to be cleaned of debris to prevent flooding
  • Initial public reaction meant that tourists stopped visiting the area
39
Q

Give 5 positive impacts of volcanic activity

A
  • Tourism: The Cascade Mountain Range now benefit from 3 million tourists a year, escalated by the publicity of the eruption. Increases desirability fot skiing, hiking and geological enthusiats.
  • Fertility of soil increases
  • Geothermal energy (equates for 87 percent of hot water and heating requirements in Iceland)
  • Household products such as kitty litter and abrasive agents are made from volcanic rock
  • Igneous rock is a source of (semi) precious gems such as diamonds, opal and quartz
40
Q

How can scientists monitor volcanic activity and prevent devastation? (6)

A
  • Tiltmeters - decipher subtle changes in the landscape (eg. shifts in lava dome)
  • Seismographs detect tremors and earthquakes
  • Digital cameras are able to visually portray transformations in the Earth’s surface (heat resistant cameras can be placed on crater rims)
  • Correlation spectometers (COSPEC) measure sulphur dioxide levels (which are released from fumaroles and increase prior to an eruption)
  • Global positioning systems (GPS). More than 12 have been placed on Mount St. Helen’s to detect deformation of the ground.
  • Satellite imagery can be used to detect temperature variation.
41
Q

Describe the formation of a supervolcano

A
42
Q

List some of the possible effects of a supervolcano eruption

(Using a mindmap will help you make to links)

A

Any from: billions of tonnes of ash released, planes cannot fly, trade hindered, resources become scare, recession and inflation, conflict for global resources, starvation, sun blocked out, fall in temperature (Ice age), vegetation cannot grow, death

43
Q

Where is Livigno situated?

A

In the Italian Alps, near the border of the Northern region of Lombardy

44
Q

How were the Alps formed?

A

Sediment in the Alpine Tethys basin was put under hunge amounts of pressure from both the Eurasian and African continental plates, causing it to move upwards, buckle and fold into mountain peaks.

45
Q
A
46
Q

List 5 difficulties caused for Livigno by being situated in a mountain range (5)

A
  • Large amounts of snowfall between November and April, which previously cut off all accedd routes to the town
  • No/little electricity, sewage system or running water for a long time
  • Little work other than the laborious task of farming high in the mountains
  • Cross-border smuggling industry thrived due to impoverished, desperate conditions
  • Younger generations tended to relocate
47
Q

What event, significant to Livigno, occurred in the winter of 1952?

A

The road between Livigno and neighbouring town, Bormio was kept open to improve residents access to the outside world during the harsh winter months

48
Q

Describe how Hydro-Electric Power was introduced to the Livigno region using two main points

A
  • Developers realised the steep slopes and narrow valleys were ideal for HEP dams, also impermeable rock increased surface run-off and the summer snow melt guarantees s current of warer
  • They proposed to tunnel through the mountain and build a road that would revolutionise life for the villagers so that they would agree to the installation of a HEP dam
49
Q

What were the advantages (5) and disadvantages (5) of HEP being introduced to Livigno?

A

Advantages: Electricity, running water, sewage, improved access to the outside world (enhanced farming methods), growth in the local economy (jobs, more people)

Disadvantages: Loss of community, visual pollution, littering, noise, erosion of the landscape

50
Q

Describe the increase in the winter sports industry in Livigno and why it is such a popular location

A

In 1965 there were 6 hotels, 2 ski slopes. In 2002 there were more than 100 hotels and 32 ski lifts.

  • Slopes with various gradients
  • Snow
  • Duty free tax status
  • In Europe (one of the most economically developed continents, people have more disposable income)
51
Q

How did the introduction of the winter sports industry benefit Livigno?

A
  • More jobs
  • More people (younger generation stay), Has recently celebrated one of the highest birth rates in the whole of Italy
  • Stable economy
52
Q

Draw a diagram of the features of an earth quake (include the different types of wave)

A
54
Q

What is the surface rupture, focus and epicentre of an earthquake?

A

Surface rupture: A split in the Earth’s surface caused by plate margin movement (doesn’t always appear)

Focus: The point in the crust where the pressure is released

Epicentre: Directly above the focus on the surface of the crust, receives the highest energy and therefore the most impact

55
Q

What are P(primary) waves of an earthquake?

A

The fastest waves, shake the ground backwards and forwards

56
Q

What are S (secondary) waves of an earthquake?

A

Slower waves that move with a sideways motion

57
Q

What are the surface waves of an earthquake? Name the two different types

A

Waves that travel much nearer to the surface, travelling slower than P or S waves but causing the most destruction.

Longitudal - Move up and down

Transverse - Move sideways

58
Q

What is the difference between the Richter and the Mercalli scale?

A

The Richter scale is a measurement of the energy waves emitted by an earth quake, whereas the Mercalli scale measures the effects based on subjective descriptions

59
Q

Where is Kobe located and when did the earthquake occur there?

A

Kobe is located 200km North of a plate boundary, on the Southern coast of Japan. Tremors occurred on the evening of January 16th 1995, the actual earthquake happened the next morning (January 17th 1995).

60
Q

How had Kobe prepared for an earthquake?

A
  • Faulty “earthquake proof” buildings
  • Japan has National Hazard Preparation training
  • Monitoring systems which pickes up tremors beforehand
  • An earthquake so high on the richter scale generally wasnt expected
61
Q

What caused the Kobe earthquake, what was its magnitude and how long did it last?

A

Causes: Subterranean Nojima fault line that sensors previously hadn’t detected ruptured under the city

Magnitude: 7.2 richter scale

Duration: 20 seconds where there was solid rock, including immediate aftershocks

62
Q

List 7 primary effects of the 1995 Kobe quake

A
  • “Earthquake proof” Hanshin express freeway, swayed, weaved and was in parts, destroyed
  • Water mains burst
  • Homes (many of traditional wooden Japanese design) collapsed, trapping residents
  • 5,502 peope killed, 43,792 injured, 300,000 homeless, 100,000 buildings destroyed
  • $150 billion worth of infrastructure destroyed
  • Liquefaction in Osaka bay
  • Port facilities collapsed
63
Q

Give some secondary effects of the Kobe earthquake (10)

A
  • Ruptured gas mains fueled rampaging fires
  • Temporary shelters, food and medical attention required (especially to protect against hypothermia)
  • Low temperatures caused disease to spread rapidly
  • A week after the quake, fires were still burning (devastating 7,000 homes), 2million homes were without power and 1 million without water
  • 700 aftershocks, 74 strong enough to be felt
  • Closures of 100s of business (eg. Mitsubishi)
  • Congestion on roads (delayed emergency services)
  • Liquefaction still occurring
  • Food and clean water shortage
  • Port out of action for 3 months (had previously dealth with $171 billion worth of cargo per year)
64
Q

What was the immediate response to the Kobe earthquake of 1995? (6)

A
  • The government announced a state of emergency and evacuated people into temporary shelters becasue they were still at risk fro fires and unstable buildings
  • Bulldozers were brought in to clear fallen buildings
  • Emergency shelters constructed for the 300,000 homeless, food and water aid also
  • 3,000 army troops deployd
  • Rescue services searched for survivors
  • Clean up operation of unsafe buildings and fires extinguished
65
Q

List some long-term responses to the Kobe earthquake (8)

A
  • Electricity was restored oe week after
  • The city was rebuilt and rezoned with more open spaces and wider zones
  • Government built homes according to strict regulations, many with diagonal bracing and not made of flammable materials like wood
  • Citizens prepared and educated
  • 1.2 million volunteers involved in relief efforts in the first three months following (USA, UK, South Korea mainly)
  • Hanshin Expressway closed to private vehicles from 8am to 6pm and limited traffic to buses, taxis and other designated vehicles
  • Debris removal completed in March 2008
  • Evacuation shelters closed on August 20th 1995
66
Q

What methods of preventing damage in the event of another earthquake are now in place in Kobe? (4)

A
  • Building zones - restrict the type of buildings allowed on reclaimed land - have to be built on solid ground and usign fire resistant materials
  • Rubber shock absorbers of the Hanshin Expressway
  • Retro-engineering - putting a stronegr framework round existign buildings (eg. Osaka Bay tower)
  • Building spacing - blocks have to e a cetain distance apart to stop the ‘domino effct’ and spread of fire
67
Q

Where is Port Au Prince?

A

It is the capital of Haiti in the Caribbean

68
Q

On what date did the Port Au Prince earthquake occur and what was it’s magnitude?

A

January 12th 2010

7.0 on the richter scale

69
Q

Before the quake, what percentage of Port Au prince’s population were living in slums?

A

86%

(70% lived on less than $2 per day)

70
Q

How was Haiti prepared for an earthquake?

A

It wasn’t.

  • No builing codes, mainly squatter settlement.
  • Cheap building materials utilized to cut costs. Weak cement and poor concrete fracture easily. Even the Haitian Houses of Parliament collapsed.
  • No training of police, army or emergency services.
71
Q

What was the cause of the 2010 Port Au Prince earthquake?

A

The island is situated on the conservative boundary between the Caribbean and the North Amerian plate. A fault line running under the city was reactivated, it had a shallow focus and the epicentre was right in the centre of the most densely populated areas of the country.

72
Q

List primary effects of the Haiti earthquake (7)

A
  • 220,000 people estimated to have died
  • 300,000+ people were injured
  • 1 in 3 buildings collaspsed. Over 188,383 houses were badly damaged and 105,000 were destroyed by the earthquake
  • 1.5million people became homeless
  • After the quake there were 19 million cubic metres of rubble and debris in Port au Prince – enough to fill a line of shipping containers stretching end to end from London to Beirut.
  • 4,000 schools were damaged or destroyed
  • Infrastructure decimated (factories, offices, transport, 25% of civil servants died)
  • Liquefaction in the port
73
Q

Give some secondary effects of the Port Au Prince quake (6)

A
  • The society descended into chaos as there was a scrabble for food, shelter and water. Social unrest, violence, looting and rape were all reported.
  • 1 million people forced into temporary camps during January, many suffered hypothermia
  • Prisons broke open - up to 4,000 criminals escaped
  • Dead bodies were left on the streets unburied for weeks, this increased the spread of disease.
  • Excretion from UN Nepaese soldiers infected the Antemoni river with vibrio cholera, this travelles downstream causign 6,000 deaths and in total 350,000 people contracted the disease
  • Tarpaulin was sold on the black market
74
Q

What were some of the more immediate responses to the Haiti earthquake? (6)

A
  • 132 citizens rescued alive by 58 teams. The rescue mission ceased after 11days.
  • Only one ambulance in the entire city - run by one man
  • Emergency servuces not mobilised, survivors left to fend for themselves
  • United Nations and NGOs cautious of social unrest - argued they prioritised arming their workforce
  • Fundraising across the globe - American Red Cross raised $45 billion
  • Aid was slow to arrive because the port was inaccesible for 5 days and the airport for 2 days)
75
Q

List three long term responses to the Haiti earthquake of 2010

A

Lack of reponse

  • City not rebuilt even 3 years later
  • Many millions of funds given to NGOs was not used to assist survivors
  • A million people still living in tents in refugee camps a year after the earthquake
76
Q

Draw a labelled diagram of how a tsunami occurs

A
77
Q

Describe how a tsunami wave occurs and how they develop as they get closer to shore

A

The subduction of an oceanic plate beneath continental crust will jolt the seabed, dramtically adjusting the entire ocean above it. An upward wave will be formed by tsunamigenisis. In open ocean the wave may be jsut 1/2m high but as it raches land, friction with the seabed will slow the train of waves and increase their height (up to around 20m).

78
Q

What is drawback?

A

When the sea is sucked back from the shore exposing the seabed before a tsunami wave strikes.

79
Q

When and where did the Boxing Day tsunami of 2004 occur? What was the original earthquakes magnitude?

A

On the morning of December 26th 2004, an earthquake of 9.2 on the richter scale was recorded 240km off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.

80
Q

How were the countries affected by the Boxing day tsunami prepared for such an event?

A

Most had no flood defences, they were mainly LEDCs with economies fuelled by tourism and fishing. However, in some areas Mangrove swamps helped to act as a barrier to reduce the energy of the water reaching the coast.

81
Q

What was the cause of the Boxing day tsunami?

A

The Indo-Australian plate subducting beneath the Eurasian plate had ‘slip frictional properties’, meaning that the upper plate is also dragged downwards. Pressure at the boundary caused the Eurasian plate to release and slip backwards, creating a 600 mile long rupture in the Earth’s crust.

82
Q

List the primary effects of the Boxing day tsunami of 2004 (8)

A
  • 20 minutes before the first wave hit, Banda Aceh on the West coast of Indonesia experienced ground movement and buildings began to crumble
  • Thousands of coastal communities were flattened by waves up to 30m high
  • The total death toll was 283,000 people, including over 8,000 tourists. 500,000 were injured. A total of 5 million people were impacted.
  • Two million people were made homeless
  • Waves travelled over 3,000 miles to the east coast of South Africa at speeds of up to 800km per hour. It killed 8 people and destroyed property there.
  • Fourteen countries were impacted, the worst being Indonesia. infrastructure and business were obliterated.
  • The total damage reached $470million
  • A state of emergency was declared in numerous countries bordering the Indian ocean
83
Q

Name some of the secondary effects of the Boxing day tsunami (7)

A
  • Bodies were placed outside in makeshift in the sweltering heat, causing disease to spread
  • Famine occurred as crops and one of the regions biggest industries, fishing was decimated
  • Transport infrastructure was slow to recover, making aid slow
  • There were many feuds over land due to a lack of documentation, there have been reports of businessed using the opportunity to size land and build tourist resorts where residents had been living for decades
  • Emotional and psychological trauma had to be tearted in many victims, witnesses and aid workerd
  • Thousands of children were orphaned
  • A disprportionate (40,000 more) number of women were killed because they were encumbered by sarongs and could not swim, in some villages a generation of young men who are strugging to marry now exist.
84
Q

What was the immediate response to the Boxing day tsunami of 2004? (7)

A
  • The United States Geological Survey warned authorities on the East coast of Africa about approaching tsunami waves
  • Recovered dead bodies were wrapped in bin bags and laid in makeshift morgues, eventually buried in mass grave sites.
  • People in Indonesia reported seeing animals flee for high ground before the tsunami hit.
  • Most individuals ran inland, climbed buildings/trees. Some were unaware that a drawback indicated towards an approaching tsunami so they went out to observe the abnormal tide and were killed.
  • Governments of affected countries responded quickly but were largely reliant on international aid.
  • India sent naval ships to all affected areas.
  • Action Aid sent food aid immediately and raised £13million
85
Q

List some long term responses to the Boxing Day tsunami of 2004 (6)

A
  • Pledged international aid topped $13.5 billion
  • The UK’s Disaster and Emergency committee established a fund to aid recovery, at one point it was receiving £15,000 per minute
  • Aceh was in armed conflict with the Indonesian military fr decades, but in the wake of the tsunami the Free Aceh movement and Indonesian government agreed on a cease fire, leading to discussions of peace and an eventual agreement in August 2005.
  • Optimists might argue the devastation gave countries a chance to rebuild themselves inkeeping with modern standards whilst others would argue it has only encouraged Westernization and has diluted the culture of the regions affected.
  • Action Aid offered psychological counselling, paid for housing and boats with motors as well as rebuilding schools and community centres
  • The Food and Agricultural Organisation of the UN trained 140 boat builders and supplied 200 boats
86
Q

How is the region impacted by the Boxing day tsunami of 2004 prepared for future disasters?

A
  • An Earthquake warning system became active in June 2006, which relays seismographic readings to 26 centres and alerts scientists through SMS and email within two minutes of a recorded undersea quake.

Criticism: This relies on local officials taking action, in the Jave tsunami of 2006 they failed to do so after receiving data. Residents in Aceh, Indonesia vandalised their loca warning station after it repeatedly gave out false warnings.

  • It has been suggested that Muslim coastal areas should use the loud speakers fitted to local mosques to warn local people

Geography (Physical) (3 decks)

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