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PSYC2019 > Rest of Semester > Flashcards

Rest of Semester Flashcards

1
Q

Describe factor analysis

A

A correlational technique for reducing the possible number of traits to a manageable number

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2
Q

what is the purpose of factor analysis?

A

To interpret emerging patterns found in managed data

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3
Q

What two types of traits did Cattell propose?

A

Surface traits and source traits

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4
Q

Describe surface traits

A

refers to observable things e.g. trait of friendliness can be seen by smiling, saying hello etc.

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5
Q

Describe source traits

A

more explanatory - underlying causes of surface traits

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6
Q

What was Cattell’s goal?

A

To identify source traits through factor analysis through 3 sources

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7
Q

Cattell’s 3 sources - L Q T

A

L- life records
Q - questionnaire
T - tests

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8
Q

How many personality factors or ‘source traits’ did Cattell devise?

A

16 - now developed into the 16PF personality test

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9
Q

What were Eysenck’s 3 personality dimensions?

A

Extraversion-Introversion (E)
Neuroticism - Stability (N)
Psychoticism (P)

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10
Q

true or false: most traits have a normal distribution

A

True - Eysenck’s dimensions are in fact on a continuous scale

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11
Q

What are the four stages of organisation into specific actions (Eysenck)

A

Type - introversion
Traits - persistence
Habits - persists with hobbies
Specific behaviours

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12
Q

Who is high psychoticism found in?

A

high degree of psychopathy found among schizophrenics, criminals, sociopaths etc.

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13
Q

What are some dispositions of people with high P (psychoticism) scores?

A
  • troublesome, not fitting in
  • cruel, inhumane
  • hostile and aggressive
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14
Q

What supporting evidence is there for introverts have higher levels of cortical arousal than extraverts?

A
  • conditioning speed
  • drugs (depressants and stimulants)
  • relation between performance and stress
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15
Q

Summarise the Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

inverted U-shape, as arousal goes up our performance increases to the ‘optimal level’, extra arousal after this level will result in drop in performance

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16
Q

What is the emerging consensus for number of factors needed to describe personality?

A

5 factors

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17
Q

What are the 5 factors? Who devised the model?

A 
Costa & McCrae's five factor model:
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
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18
Q

What is personality assessment?

A

Gathering of info about a person to aid understanding, prediction or decision making about said person

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19
Q

Briefly summarise two basic assumptions underlying personality assessment

A
  • there is consistency over time within an individual

- sufficient regularity and similarity in overt behaviours

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20
Q

What are the three requirements for a good personality test?

A
  1. Reliability
  2. Validity
  3. Standardisation
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21
Q

What is meant by reliability?

A

the extent to which a test produces consistent results

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22
Q

What is meant by validity?

A

extent to which a test measure what it claims to measure

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23
Q

According to Mischel (1968), what is the correlation of cross-situational consistency?

A

r = 0.3, that is, the same behaviour from an individual across different situations has a correlation of 0.3

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24
Q

What are two levels of influence?

A
  1. Sociocultural
  2. Situational
    Note: refers to physical and social environment e.g. the whole psychological situation
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25
Q

What do situationists suggest?

A

That personality doesn’t exist, and that situational factors determine a person’s behaviour

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26
Q

What is interactionism?

A

The idea that traits and situations combine to produce behaviour e.g. a person will behave according to a trait in some situations, but not others

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27
Q

How can interactionism be tested?

A
  1. Experimental method (manipulating situations to observe behaviours)
  2. Variance-components method (response to naturally occurring situations for analysis - correlation)
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28
Q

What are the models of interactionism?

A
  1. Static (person + situation = behaviour)

2. Dynamic (reciprocal relationships between persons, situations and behaviour)

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29
Q

The fundamental problem for the study of personality is…

A

empirical evidence for human knowledge development

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30
Q

Social psychology can be defined as…

A

The scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of individuals are influenced by one’s social environment

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31
Q

What does social psychology assume?

A

We construct our world and selves socially, in interaction with other people

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32
Q

What is a meta-theory?

A

A theory about theories; a more abstract theoretical perspective that finds expression in different concrete theories

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33
Q

Explain the “power of the situation” and how it can affect normal people

A

Well-adjusted people can commit evil deeds under strong situational demands e.g. Milgram obedience studies

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34
Q

Define situationism

A

Human behaviour is primarily determined by the forces of the situation, the social environment

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35
Q

The Carnahan & McFarland (2007) differing ad study found that:

A

volunteers for prison life study were higher in aggression, narcissism and social dominance, lower in altruism and empathy

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36
Q

Explain interactionism

A

Personality factors and situational factors interact and jointly determine how people act in certain circumstances

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37
Q

When do people take on a group role?

A

After they have internalised them as part of a social identity shared with other people

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38
Q

What is distinctive about social psych research methods?

A

manipulation and control, and randomisation. this leads to inferences of causality and high validity levels

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39
Q

What does prior knowledge have to do with social cognition?

A

Our behaviour depends on the stimuli in a situation, but also prior knowledge that we bring to the situation

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40
Q

What is bottom up processing?

A

Stimuli received through our senses that are processed

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41
Q

What it top down processing?

A

Information that we bring to a situation e.g. people wearing suits

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42
Q

Our capacity to process information is limited (social cognition basic assumptions). expand

A

Depending on capacity and necessity, we process info in a given situation to a greater or lesser depth

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43
Q

What is the basic assumption in social cognition about cognitive processes?

A

Cognitive processes can be conscious and controlled or automatic and uncontrolled

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44
Q

Define a schema

A

Cognitive structures containing information about how the social world operates

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45
Q

Explain a prototype in terms of category representation

A

A prototype is a cognitive representation of the typically ideal characteristics of a category - a stereotype is the same but for groups

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46
Q

How do categories become activated in social cognition?

A

Depends on how cognitively accessible the categories are - determined by frequency and recency

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47
Q

What is priming?

A

Exposing someone to a certain aspect of a category so they can expect that from said category

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48
Q

How is motivation relevant to categorisation?

A

Your motivations at the time depend how you categorise something e.g. a tomato can either be food when hungry or a projectile when angry

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49
Q

What is judgement?

A

Cognitive shortcuts when mental capacity is limited: decision heuristics

50
Q

What is an anchoring heuristic?

A

judgements start with an initial value (anchor_ and are adjusted during subsequent course of judgement, often insufficiently

51
Q

What is an availability heuristic?

A

Judgements of frequency or probability based on ease of information coming to mind (the easier an example comes to mind, the more frequent)

52
Q

What is a representativeness heuristic?

A

judgements are based on typicality of a case for a broader category or event, ignoring base rates

53
Q

Why are social psychologists interested in the self?

A
  1. social behaviour
  2. influence of social environment
  3. construction of social world/self through interaction
54
Q

What is the looking-glass self?

A

The way we perceive ourselves through the imagined lens of others

55
Q

Define your self-concept

A

the representation of yourself, in terms of attributes, roles, group memberships…

56
Q

Self-schemas are…

A

cognitive generalisations about the self derived from past experience. They also guide processing of self-relevant information

57
Q

What determines self-complexity?

A

the number of independent, non-redundant self-aspects

58
Q

What is the importance of self-complexity?

A

protects the self from the impact of negative experiences in one domain of self

59
Q

What are the three selves detailed in the self-discrepancy theory? (Higgins, 1987)

A 
Actual self (self in actual terms)
Ideal self (self you want to be)
Ought self (self others expect of you)
60
Q

When discrepancies exist between your actual self and ideal self, what happens?

A

Can feel disappointed, frustrated, sad

61
Q

When discrepancies between your ideal self and ought self occur, what happens?

A

Can feel guilty, ashamed, resentful and afraid

62
Q

What are the two aspects of the regulatory focus theory? (Higgins, 1987)

A

Promotion focus and prevention focus

63
Q

What is promotion focus?

A

focusing on the approach of gains, striving for ideals

64
Q

What is prevention focus?

A

avoidance of losses; fulfilling duties or oughts e.g. concerned about doing wrong thing - less risk-taking

65
Q

Define self-regulation

A

controlling and changing one’s self and one’s behaviour towards certain goals and expectations

66
Q

What is the relational self?

A

Oneself in relation to other relevant individuals e.g. individualist societies promote independent self, collectivist societies promote interdependent self

67
Q

Define self-esteem

A

“A person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth”, linked to well-being, happiness, optimism, productivity and resilience against failure

68
Q

What is explicit self-esteem?

A

conscious, measured via self-report

69
Q

What is implicit self-esteem?

A

subconscious, measured via implicit associations or indirect measures

70
Q

What happens when there are discrepancies between explicit and implicit self-esteem?

A

high explicit but low implicit - particularly defensive to self threats (insecure)

71
Q

Explain self-presentation

A

managing and influencing others’ impressions of us

72
Q

Why do we engage in self-presentation?

A

As well as strategic reasons, for self-expressive reasons: for others to confirm your view of yourself

73
Q

Define attitude

A

a psychological tendency of positively or negatively evaluating something

74
Q

What are the two elements of attitudes?

A
  1. object

2. process of evaluation

75
Q

In relations to the importance of attitudes, it is assumed that…

A

attitudes guide our behaviour, and attitudes are a means for social influence

76
Q

What are some methodological issues of attitudes as a behaviour guide?

A

Measurement correspondence - attitude measurement tends to be global, but behaviour measurement tends to be specific

77
Q

What is the theory of reasoned action?

A

That the attitude towards the behaviour is the sum of the values of all potential outcomes weighted by their probability

78
Q

What is the subjective norm? (theory of reasoned action)

A

belief that significant other think one should perform the behaviour, weighted by one’s motivation to comply with the person

79
Q

What is reverse causality?

A

Behaviour affecting attitudes

80
Q

What are the 3 characteristics of dissonance theory? (Festinger, 1957)

A
  • people attempt to maintain consistency between thoughts and actions
  • inconsistency arouses cognitive dissonance
  • dissonance is reduced by changing attitudes in line with behaviour
81
Q

What is the self-perception theory? (Bern, 1965)

A
  • people infer attitudes from their own behaviour
82
Q

What is induced compliance? (dissonance theory)

A

Induced behaviour elicits dissonance, resolved by attitude change, then affects further behaviour

83
Q

Induced compliance is also known as the foot in the door tactic. What are the three steps?

A
  1. small request, easy to comply
  2. compliance and shift in attitudes
  3. larger request now more likely to be complied with
84
Q

What is the opposite of the foot in the door tactic?

A

Door-in-face tactic. Won’t say yes to the large request, but may say yes to smaller one due to comparison with the larger one

85
Q

Describe the central route of persuasion

A

effortful scrutiny of the message content

86
Q

Describe the peripheral route

A

use of message-external cues

87
Q

What factors determine elaboration likelihood (likelihood that message is critically evaluated)

A

Ability (intelligence, distraction)

Motivation (personal relevance

88
Q

Define altruism

A

Motive to increase another’s welfare without conscious regard for one’s self-interest

89
Q

What are the three explanations for altruism?

A
  1. Social exchange theory
  2. Social norms
  3. Evolutionary psychology
90
Q

Social exchange theory is a minimax strategy. What does this mean?

A

Maximise benefits for yourself and minimise the costs

91
Q

What does Batson say is ‘genuine altruism’?

A

Empathy; putting oneself in another’s shoes, to experience their distress and help them

92
Q

What are social norms?

A

Social expectations: prescribing what we ought to do

93
Q

Explain the reciprocity norm

A

expectation that people will help those who have helped them

94
Q

Explain the reciprocity norm in the context of finding a stranger’s wallet

A

Finder might be rewarded with a small amount of money from the wallet for returning it

95
Q

What is the social responsibility norm?

A

Expectation that people will help those dependent upon them (children, disabled)

96
Q

Each of the three theories there are two types of altruism. What are they? Give a brief example of each

A

Mutual altruism: external rewards/reciprocity norms

Intrinsic altruism: empathy, social responsibility, kin selection

97
Q

What did Milgran suggest contributed to Kitty Genovese’s murder?

A

The natural extension of urban environment - less willing to help strangers due to massive number of people

98
Q

What have experiments shown the effects of bystander passivity to be?

A

as the no. of bystanders increased, any individual is less likely to assume responsibility, or interpret the incident as a problem

99
Q

How does guilt affect helping behaviour?

A

Guilt is painful, and we act to reduce it by helping other people

100
Q

What role do traits play in helping behaviour?

A

People high in emotionality and empathy are predisposed to help

101
Q

How does gender of the helpless effect helping behaviour?

A

Men are more likely to offer help in situations that present danger - women more likely to help in safe situations

102
Q

What does kinship mean in the context of Indigenous Australian communities?

A
  • different responsibilities and rights
  • elders are leaders, upholders of interpreted law
  • sharing and reciprocity within communities
103
Q

How is land seen in Indigenous Australian communities?

A

The responsibility of the community, whereas Western cultures advocate individual ownership in exchange for money

104
Q

What were the consequences of land disposession for Indigenous Australians?

A
  • no meaning to life
  • lack of food and medicine
  • many people died
105
Q

Colonists explained their actions as ‘social darwinism’. Explain this

A

Darwinism refers to the survival of the fittest. Settlers suggested the inevitable extinction of the Indigenous was beneficial to them due to their inferiority

106
Q

When was the Stolen generation ‘stolen’? How many children were stolen?

A

1910

70-100 000 children placed into institutions or white families

107
Q

What did the Closing the Gap program aim to achieve?

A

Improving health, housing, education and employment

108
Q

What was the Northern Territory Intervention? (2007)

A

An initiative of the Howard government that aimed to decrease levels of child abuse in Indigenous communities by banning alcohol and increasing police presence

109
Q

Was the Northern Territory Intervention helpful?

A

Police presence further deteriorated relationships between law and community, and Indigenous people were not involved in implementation in any way

110
Q

What are the four characteristics of communication?

A

Sender, receiver, medium, content

111
Q

What are the five nonverbal behaviours?

A 
Kinesics (movement)
Oculesics (eye)
Haptics (touching)
Proxemics (space)
Vocalics (pitch, tempo)
112
Q

What is discursive psychology?

A

analysis of spoken/written text to understand how people construct their reality

113
Q

What is social constructivism?

A

The idea that no universal truth exists, because experience constructs your knowledge

114
Q

What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis)?

A

Your language dictates what you see and what you perceive, many argue the opposite

115
Q

What are the main Aboriginal values?

A
  • spirit and integrity
  • reciprocity
  • respect and equality
  • survival and protection
  • responsibility
116
Q

Defining prejudice

A

A prejudgmental attitude to a group and its members (combination of ABC)

117
Q

Where do prejudices stem from?

A

our need to justify our behaviour or from negative beliefs or stereotypes

118
Q

What is a stereotype?

A

A negative or positive generalised belief towards a particular group

119
Q

Define discrimination

A

Discrimination is the negative behaviour, resulting from prejudice (negative attitude)

120
Q

What is an illusory correlation?

A

The perception of a relationship between two variables that does not exist in the real world

121
Q

What is the superiority theory?

A

Related to malicious schadenfreude; pleasure is a product of superiority about disadvantaged people’s adversity for which the disadvantaged are blamed

PSYC2019 (2 decks)

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