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Ideals/C2C/RESS/I and P ATS > RESS > Flashcards

RESS Flashcards

1
Q

What is incidence and prevalence used for?

A

To compare the epidemiological triad

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2
Q

What is the epidemiological triad? (3)

A
  1. Time
  2. Person
  3. Place
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3
Q

What is incident rate?

A

Number of new case occurring in a period/ number of people at risk in a population.

(Those that can contract the disease)

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4
Q

What is prevalence?

A

Number of people in the population with the disease at a certain time.

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5
Q

What is prevalence useful for? (what disease type?)

A

Chronic disease

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6
Q

What is case fatality rate?

A

Number of people who die from the disease in a period/ number of people with disease

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7
Q

What is mortality rate?

A

number of people who die from the disease in period/ number of people who die in period

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8
Q

What is adjustment?

A

reducing the effects of the population factors that may sway the result.

example - age adjustment

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9
Q

How is age adjustment done?

A

By stratum specific rates

  • The study divides different categories of age and sex.
  • Incidence of each group is calculated
  • standardised weightings are assigned to the groups - based on this data is adjusted accordingly
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10
Q

How is the likelihood of a particular outcome measured?

A

Risk and odds

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11
Q

What is risk?

A
  • the probability of disease

1 = Certain to happen

0 = Will not happen

  • number of new cases/ number at risk
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12
Q

Why can’t you assign a personal risk?

A

As the person is either going to get the disease or not.

  • can assign a group lifetime risk
    e. g. Heavy smokers risk of developing lung cancer
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13
Q

What is a risk ratio?

A

Comparison of risks between 2 groups

  • risk in exposed group vs risk in unexposed group
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14
Q

When is a risk ratio used?

A

In cohort studies only

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15
Q

What is a cohort study?

A
  • Investigates the causes of disease, establishing links between risk factors and health outcomes.
  • Cohort studies are usually forward-looking - that is, they are “prospective” studies, or planned in advance and carried out over a future period of time.
    e. g testing new drug - half get new drug and half get current treatment
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16
Q

How are cohort studies selected?

A

By their exposure

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17
Q

What is calculated in a cohort study?

A

Incidence of disease

  • those of the cohort that smoke and how many of them got lung cancer at the end of the study
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18
Q

What is the risk ratio a measure of?

A

Of relative risk

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19
Q

What does it mean if the relative risk = 1?

A

no difference between the 2 groups

  • risk / odds is the same in exposed and control group
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20
Q

What does it mean if the relative risk is

A

exposure is protective

risk / odds in exposed group is less than in control group

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21
Q

What does it mean if the relative risk > 1 ?

A

exposure is harmful

risk/odds in exposed group is greater than in control group

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22
Q

What is the relative risk?

A

Risk for treated group/ Risk of control group x 100

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23
Q

What is the relative risk reduction?

A

100 - relative risk

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24
Q

What is the risk difference?

A

0 = there is no risk difference between unexposed or exposed

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25
Q

What are odds?

A

probability of an event vs probability of no event

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26
Q

When are odds used?

A

When risk can’t be calculated

Case control studies/ RCTs (randomised control trials)

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27
Q

What is the odds ratio?

A

odds for disease of exposed group / odds of disease of unexposed group

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28
Q

What is dichotomous?

A

variable takes 1 of 2 forms

example - dead/ alive

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29
Q

When can an odds ratio be used in a RCT?

A

When the RCT is dichotomous

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30
Q

What does the normal distribution curve look like?

A

bell-shaped curve

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31
Q

What does the highest point of the normal distribution curve equate to?

A

Mean

Median

Mode

32
Q

What is the standard deviation of the normal distribution curve?

A

95% of the data lie within 1.96 standard deviation.

33
Q

What are categoric variables?

A

Distinct categories

34
Q

What can categoric variables be divided into? (2)

A
  1. ordinal - stage of cancer at diagnosis

2. nominal - sex

35
Q

What are numerical variables?

A

Numerical values only

36
Q

What can numerical variables be divided into?

A
  1. continuous - age

2. discrete - number of hospital visits

37
Q

What do frequency tables record and show?

A

Records - frequency distribution

Shows - frequency and relative frequency

38
Q

What are bar charts used for?

A

for categorical and discrete numerical data

39
Q

What are pie charts used for?

A

categorical or discrete numeric data

40
Q

What are histograms used for and what does the bar mean?

A

frequency of distribution of continuous variables.

classes are used to group data and create a frequency table.

area of bar is proportional of frequency

41
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

numerical data only

measure of spread

shows the average distance of data values from the mean.

42
Q

What do each quartile denote?

A

Q1 25% - interquartile

Q2 50% - median

Q3 75% - interquartile

43
Q

What does non- normally distributed curves use?

A

Median and IQR

not effected by outliers

44
Q

What is chi-squared used for?

A

to determine an association between categorical variables

45
Q

When is a correlation analysis used?

A

outcome - numerical

exposure - numerical

46
Q

When is a t test or Mann- Whitney test used?

A

outcome - numerical

exposure - categorical - independent group

47
Q

When is a paired T-test or sign test used?

A

outcome - numerical

exposure - categorical - non-independent groups

48
Q

What are confidence intervals?

A

measure of spread of data

can used z values

49
Q

What are the confidence intervals like for larger studies?

A

smaller

as they reduce the spread of the data and increase the accuracy of the result in relation to the population

50
Q

What is standard error?

A

measure of how reliable the sample population mean is from that of the population.

measure of precision

used to calculate confidence interval

51
Q

How do you calculate the standard error?

A

standard deviation / root of the sample size

52
Q

What is a large sample CI?

A
  • more than 200 records in sample with an estimated SD or known SD
  • CI can be calculated from normal distribution tables using Z values

Z= 1.96 or -1.96

53
Q

What is a small sample?

A
  • less than 200 records
  • use T-distribution - as CI for these should be broader

calculation uses degrees of freedom

54
Q

What does 95% confidence interval mean?

A

if the experiment was repeated 100 times the result would be in the range of the confidence interval 95 of those times.

55
Q

What are p values?

A

The probability of something happening.

56
Q

What p value is used in hypothesis testing?

A

p

57
Q

What is primary prevention?

A

removing a cause

e.g. environemnt cause, social ,economic and dietary

58
Q

What is secondary prevention?

A

prevention of disease by screening

e.g. diagnostic tests

59
Q

What is tertiary prevention?

A

prevention of disease by treating clinical cases

60
Q

What is sensitivity?

A

how well a test detects a condition

61
Q

What is specificity?

A

how well a test excludes those who don’t have the disease

62
Q

What is a positive predictive value?

A

probability someone has the condition if they are tested positively

63
Q

What is a negative predictive value?

A

probability someone doesn’t have the condition when tested negatively

64
Q

What is accuracy?

A

proportion of tests that have given the correct results

65
Q

What is validity?

A

meausres accurately what it is meant to measure

e.g. using BMI instead of weight

66
Q

What is reliability?

A

give the same result consistently

67
Q

What is responsiveness?

A

detection of real changes when they occur

e.g. continuous QoL scale rather than categorical

68
Q

What is an inductive hypothesis?

A

proposed after an analysis

69
Q

What is a deductive hypothesis?

A

proposed before analysis

  • used to predict the outcome of 2 variables
70
Q

What is the outcome and exposure in the risk of gangrene in diabetes?

A

outcome is gangrene

exposure - diabetes

71
Q

What is a sample?

A

is representative of population

72
Q

What is a simple random sample?

A

the only true sample

population members are chosen at random

73
Q

What is a stratified sample?

A

members are chosen at random but the sample is set into groups to ensure that the groups with in the population are equally represented.

74
Q

What is an interval sample?

A

When you take samples at set intervals

75
Q

What is a cluster sample?

A

when you divide the population into clusters

e.g UK divided into county clusters for healthcare

Ideals/C2C/RESS/I and P ATS (3 decks)

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