Respiratory/urinary System Flashcards
Air flow into lungs
Lower intrapulmonary pressure (inhale) below atmospheric pressure
Inhale = increase volume= decrease pressure
Air flow out of the lungs
Exhaling= decrease volume= increase pressure
Resistance in which affect ventilation
- Pulmonary compliance - ease in which air flows
- Diameter of bronchioles
Bronchocontriction or bronchodilation
Alveolar surface tension
Thin water filaments needed
( two hydrogens bond) = collapse of alevoli and bonchials
- pulmonary surfactant = (great alveolar cells)
Decrease surface tension
– Premature infants (lack surfactant)
Alveolar ventilation
Air only enters alveoli for gas exchange
NOT ALL INHALED AIR GETS THERE
Anatomical dead space- conduction division (no gas exchange)
Physiological- (total) dead space- pulmonary diseases
Respiratory volumes
- Tidal volume (volume of breath one full volume)
- Inspiratory reserve volume (inspiration can be inhaled with max effort)
- Expiratory reserve volume (expiration can be exhaled with maximum effort)
- Residual volume (alveoli inflated) air that remains in lungs even after maximum expiration
Total lung capacity
TLC= RV (residual capacity) and VC (vital capacity)
Vital capacity
Amount of air that can be exhaled with effort after maximum inspiration
ERV (expiration reserve volume) + TV (tidal volume) + IRV (inspiration reserve volume) = Vital capacity
Oxygen imbalances
Hypoxia- deficiency of oxygen in tissue or inability to use oxygen
Hypoxemic hypoxia
Inadequate pulmonary gas exchange
Oxygen deficiency at high elevevations
Imparired ventilation
Drowning
Foreign body respiratory
Ischemic hypoxia
Inadequate circulation of blood
Congestive heart failure
Anemia hypoxia
Anemia due to inability of the blood to carry adequate oxygen
COPD
Long-term obstruction of airflow
Major COPDS
Chronic bronchitis and emphysema
Associated with smoking
air pollution
Airbone irritants
Defects
Chronic bronchitis
Severe lower respiratory tract
Goblet cells enlarge and produce a lot of mucus
Emphysema
Alveolar wall break down
Lungs fibrotic and less elastic
Air passages collapse
Weaken thoracic muscles
Smoking and lung cancer
Lung cancer accounts for more deaths than any other cancer
-squamous cell carcinoma (most common)
Bronchial epithelium into stratified squamous from ciliated pseudostratified epithelium (change)
Larynx has 9 cartiledges
Large:
Epiglottic cartilage: superior
Thyroid cartiledge: largest (Adam’s apple)
Criticoid cartiledge: connects larynx to trachea (ring like)
Three small larynx cartiledges
Artenoid cartiledge (2)
Corniculate cartiedge (2) ; attached to arytenoid cartiedge like a pair of little horns
Cuneiform (2)
Trachea windpipe
16-20 c-shaped cartilaginous rings (hyaline)
Trachealis muscle- opening in rings, adjust airflow by expanding/contracting
Pseudostratified columnar- functions as a mucociliary escalator
Pleural fluid functions
- Reduce friction
- Create pressure gradient
- Compartimentalization: prevents spread of infections to others
Neural control of breathing
Medulla oblongata helps and pons help unconscious breathing
Medulla respiratory center is in the
Inspiration center (dorsal respiratory)
Expiration center (ventral respiratory group)
Pons respiratory center is in the
Pneumotaxic center
Apneustic center
Bronchitis
Inflammation of bronchial walls
Asthma
Excessive stimulation and bronchoconstriction
Restrict airflow
Respiratory distress syndrome
Not enough surfactant bc alveolar 2 cells
In premature infants
Pneumonia
Inflammation of lobules
Nasopharynx has ____ epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Oropharynx has ____ epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
Laryngopharynx has _____ epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
Functions of the Larynx
Keep food and drinks out of airways
Sound production
Gas transport is
Carrying gasses from alveoli to systemic tissues
Functions of the kidney
1.Filter blood and excrete toxic waste
2.Regulate blood volume,pressure,osmalarity
3.Regulate electrolytes and acid-base balance
4.Secrete erythropoietin = stimulates the production of red blood cells
5. Helps regulate calcium levels by participating in calcitriol synthesis
Nitrogenous waste
Nitrogen levels for metabolism produces
MOST IMPORTANT
Urea (50%)- protein metabolism
Excretion is
Separating waste from body fluids and eliminating them
4 body systems to carry out wastes
Respiratory system: small amounts of other gasses and water
Integumentary system: water, inorganic salts, lactic acid, urea in sweat
Digestive system: water,salts, lipids, bile pigments, cholesterol, etc
Urinary system: many metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs, hormones
Renal nerve supply
Innervate kidneys and ureters
Each kidney at hilum
Sympathetic innervation
Adjust rate of urine formation
Stimulates release of renin: restricts losses of water and salt in urine
Stimulate reabsorption at nephron
Nephrons
Where urine production begins: 1.2 million
Has 2 parts
Renal corpuscle; filters blood plasma (glomerular filtrate) has glomerulus which is a ball of capillaries and glomerulus browmans encloses glomerulus
Renal tubule; long, coiled tube that converts the filtrate into urine
Basic process of urine formation
- Glomerular filtration
- Tubular reabsorption and secretion
- Water conservation
Urine formation through kidneys
- Glomerular filtration
- Tubular reabsoption
- Tubular secretion
- Water conservation
In depth kidney urine formation
- Glomerular filtrate: fluid in the capsular space (like plasma but no protein
- Tubular fluid: from proximal convoluted tubule through distal convoluted tubular (substances has been removed or added by tubular cells)
- Urine: fluid that enters the collecting duct (undergoes little alteration beyond this point except for water content)
Filtration membrane
Three membranes where fluid passes through
- Fenestrated endothelium: filtration pores (small enough to block cells from filtrate)
- Basement membrane: negative charge (blocks anions)
Blood plasma- 7% protein - Filtration slits: podocyte cell extension (pedicles) visceral layer of glomerular capsule wrap around capillaries barrier.
Glomerular filtration pressure
blood hydrostatic pressure (fluid pressure) pressure outward and
colloid osmotic pressure (materials in solution on either side of capillary walls)
Blood hydrostatic pressure
Blood pressure in glomerular capillaries
Pushes water and solute molecules into collecting duct
> out plasma <in filtrate
Pressure in capsule space
Opposite in glomerular hydrostatic pressure
Pushes water and solutes
Resistance flow along nephron and conducting system
CP 18mm
Colloid osmotic pressure
Resulting from the presence of suspended proteins
Draw water out of filtrare into plasma
Opposite to filtration
COP 32mm
Glomerular filtration rate
Amount of filtrare formed per minute by the two kidneys
Generates 180 Liters of filtrate
99% reabsorption
1/2 L urinate per day
If Glomerular filtration too high
Water goes too rapidly through renal tubules
Can’t reabsorb water and solutes
Urine output rises
DEHYDRATION
GFR to low
Wastes are reabsorbed
Azotemia may occur (toxic waste)
Regulate glomerular filtration
Adjusting glomerular blood pressure from movement to movement
Renal Autoregulation
Hormonal control RENIN- angiotensin
Aldosterone mechanism
Renal autoregulation
Ability of nephrons to adjust their own blood flow without GFR (nervous or hormonal) control
Antidiuretic hormone
Prevents dehydration
Loss of blood volume
Raising blood osmolarity
ADH hormone makes collecting duct More permeable to water
Water reabsorption
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Secreted by the heart in response to high blood pressure
Na+ and water excretion and urine volume
Collecting duct concentrates urine
Removes water from urine and returns into blood
Concentrates wastes
Urine testing
Urinalysis- microscopic and chemical testing of urine
Appearance- clear to deep amber depending on state of dehydration
Yellow: urochrome pigment from breakdown of hemoglobin
Odor: degrade urea to ammonia, foods and diseases
Composition and properties of urine
Specific gravity: compares urine samples density to distilled water
Osmolarity
Ph: range 4.5 - 8.2
Blood
Ketones
Chemical composition
Polyuria
Excess of 2L day
Obligaría
Less than 500 ML day
Anuria
0-100 mL day
Low output from kidney disease
Dehydration
Circulatory chock or prostate enlargement
Urine volume w diabetes
Metabolic disorder due to chronic Polyuria
Diabetes type 1,2 AND gestational diabetes
(High concentration of everything)
Diabetes insipidus
ADH cause not enough water to be reabsorbed in collecting duct
Urine volume to normal
Diuretics: ANY chemical that increases urine volume
Effects: urine output
Blood volume
Uses: hyposecretion and congestive heart failure
Mechanism: GFR
Tubular reabsorption
Urine storage and elimination
Ureters: Urine enters and passes posterior to bladder and enters from below
Adventicia: CT
Musularis: 2 layers of smooth muscle (urine enters and stretches and contracts)
Mucosa: transitional epithelium
Lumen very narrow, easily obstructed by kidney stones
Urinary bladder
Muscular sac located on floor of pelvic cavity
Three layers:
Muscularis (detrusor muscle)
Mucosa: (transitional epithelium)
Rugae: wrinkles in empty bladder
Urinary bladder (looks)
Trigone: smooth-surface triangular area on bladder floor
Capacity: fullness is 500 mL
Max fullness: 700/800 mL
Female urethra
3/4 cm long
Has:
Orfifice
Internal urethral sphincter: detrusor muscle
Thickened, smooth muscle, involuntary control
External urethral spinchter: skeletal muscle
Male urethra
18cm long
HAS:
Internal urethral sphincter
External urethral sphincter
3 regions: Prostatic urethra
Membranous urethra
Spongy urethra
Urinary tract infection
Cystitis: infection of urinary bladder
Can spread
Pyelitis
Infection of the renal pelvis
Pyelonephritis
Infection that reaches the context and nephrons
Blood-borne bacteria
Renal insufficiency and hemodialysis
Kidney cannot maintain own hemostatis
CAUSE: extensive destruction of nephrons
Cause of nephron destruction
Hypertension, chronic kidney infection, trauma, prolonged ischemia, hypoxia, positing by heavy metal etc
NEPHRONS CAN REGENERATE AND RESTORE KIDNEY FUNCTION
OTHERS ARE TOO BIG AND LOSE KIDNEY FUNCTION
NEPHRONS LOST
75% = 30 mL urine output
Insufficient to maintain homeostasis
Effects: Azotemia, acidosis, uremia, anemia
Hemodialysis
Artificially clearing wastes from blood
Waste leaves blood stream and enter dialysis fluid as blood flows through tube
Removes excess body fluid
BLOOD UREA NITROGENOUS WASTE
Levels of nitrogenous waste in body
Azotemia
Raise of BUN levels
Uremia
Toxic waste that has accumulated
