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A2 LEVEL 9700 > RESPIRATION > Flashcards

RESPIRATION Flashcards

1
Q

A cell does three main kinds of work

A

1.Transport
2.Mechanical
3.Chemical

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2
Q
A
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3
Q

Specific examples of processes that utilise energy for the
transport of substances across membranes include..

A

Sodium potassium pump in nerve cell membranes; [1 mark]
 Reuptake of neurotransmitters at a synapse; [1 mark]
 Exocytosis of digested bacteria from phagocytes/neutrophils/macrophages; [1 mark]
 Secretion/exocytosis of a named type of enzyme from a named cell type, e.g. of amylase from the cells of
the salivary glands; [1 mark]
 Secretion/exocytosis of a named hormone from a named cell types, e.g. insulin from beta cells; [1 mark]
 Secretion/exocytosis of antibodies from plasma cells; [1 mark]
 Active uptake of calcium ions from muscle cells; [1 mark]
 Pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane/cristae; [1 mark]
 Cotransport of sugar/glucose from the small intestine into the blood; [1 mark]
 Cotransport of sodium / glucose / amino acids from the kidney nephron into the blood; [1 mark]

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4
Q
A

BIOLUMINESCENCE

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5
Q

what is respiration

A
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6
Q

respiration word equation

A
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7
Q
A
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8
Q

Autotrophs

A

organisms that are able to synthesise their
own usable carbon compounds from carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere through photosynthesis

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9
Q

Heterotrophs

A

don’t have this ability. They require a supply
of pre-made usable carbon compounds which they get
from their food

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10
Q
A
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11
Q

Although the complete oxidation
of glucose to carbon dioxide and
water has a

A

very high energy
yield, the reaction does not
happen easily

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12
Q

Why glucose does not burn spontaneously?

A

Glucose is actually quite stable,
because of the activation energy
that has to be added before any
reaction takes place.
In living organisms, the activation
energy is overcome by lowering it
using enzymes and also by raising
the energy level of the glucose by
phosphorylation

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13
Q
A
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14
Q

A cell has got energy yielding (EYR)

A

and energy
requiring reactions (ERR)

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15
Q

Energy coupling occurs when

A

the energy produced by one reaction is used to
drive another reaction.
Energy released in energy yielding reactions is
used to drive an energy requiring reaction

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16
Q

ATP full form

A

Adenosine Triphosphate

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17
Q

ATP is the

A

universal energy currency of the cell.
Universal: It is used in all organisms
Currency: Like money, it can be used for different purposes (reactions) and
is reused countless times

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18
Q

ach cell makes its own

A

ATP

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19
Q

ATP is a ______ nucleotide

A

phosphorylated

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20
Q
A
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21
Q
A

One phosphate ester bond and two phosphate anhydride bonds
hold the three phosphates (PO4) and the ribose together.
Anhydride bonds between phosphate groups are high energy bonds
because their electronegative charges repel one another.

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22
Q
A
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23
Q

why does ATP not breakdown on its own

A

this is because the activation energy required for hydrolysis of ATP is high enough that ATP hydrolysis so that enzyme hydrolysis does not take place without an enzyme called atpase

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24
Q

Properties of atp
FIT LESS R

A

 Foundin every life forms – Universal
 It is an immediate energy donor to ERR in cells
 Rapid turn over number; quickly synthesized and hydrolysed - Allows cells to respond to
sudden energy needs
 It links EYR to ERR; acts as an intermediate molecule
 Energyoutcome: When terminal two phosphate groups are removed from ATP, 30.5kjmol−1
of energy is released while the first bond release only 14.2 kjmol−1 of energy4- this is enough
energy to drive metabolic reactions while keeping energy wastage low
 ATP is a stable molecule : It does not break down unless an enzyme, ATPase is present. So no
energy wastage
 Small and soluble ; so easy diffusion within a cell. Can transport energy to different areas of a
cell
 ATP can be recycled-same molecule can be reused in cells for different reactions
Roles of AT

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25
Q

Roles of ATP

A
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26
Q
A
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27
Q

What makes ATP an excellent energy currency?

A
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28
Q

The difference between energy currency and energy storage

A

An energy currency molecule acts as the immediate donor of energy to the cell’s energy
requiring reactions.
 An energy storage molecule is a short-term (glucose or sucrose) or long-term (glycogen,
starch or triglyceride) store of chemical potential energy.

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29
Q

Phosphorylation.

A

The addition of a phosphate group to an organic
compound

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30
Q
A
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31
Q

Cells generate ATP by

A

Phosphorylation

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32
Q

Ways of ATP Production

A

SUBSTRATE LINKED
REACTION
CHEMIOSMOSIS

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33
Q

In humans, all ATP is made in respiration

A

both by substrate linked reaction and chemiosmosis.
In plants

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34
Q

Substrate-level phosphorylation

A

a metabolism reaction
that results in the production of ATP by the transfer of
a phosphate group from a substrate directly to ADP.

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35
Q

The energy for the addition pf phosphate is supplied by

A

the removal
of the phosphate group from phosphorylated organic
molecule

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36
Q
A
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37
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

the synthesis of ATP using
energy released by the movement of
hydrogen ions down the concertation
gradient, across a membrane in a
mitochondrion or chloroplast

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38
Q

chemiosmosis

A
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39
Q

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

A
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40
Q

PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

A
  • Process : chlorophlast
  • Organelle: photosynthesis
  • Site: thylakoid membrane
  • Enzyme involved: ATP synthase
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41
Q
A
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42
Q
A
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43
Q
A
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44
Q

co-enzymes

A

NAD
FAD
NADP
CO ENZYME A

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45
Q

NADis the abbreviation used for

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

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46
Q

FAD is the abbreviation used for

A

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide

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47
Q

NADP is the abbreviation used for

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Phosphate

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48
Q

role of NAD and FAD in aerobic respiration

A

 1 coenzymes ;
 2 help / for, dehydrogenases / dehydrogenation (reactions) ;
 3 ref. to glycolysis / link reaction / Krebs cycle ;
 4 carry / transfer / transport / bring, hydrogens / H ;
 5 to, ETC / inner mitochondrial membrane / crista(e)

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49
Q
A
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50
Q

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD) is made of two

A

linked nucleotides

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51
Q

NAD

A

It is made in the body from
nicotinamide (Vitamin B3), the 5
carbon ribose, adenine and two
phosphate groups.
One nucleotide contains the
nitrogenous base adenine. The
other contains a nicotinamide ring
that can accept hydrogen atoms
each of which can later be split into
a hydrogen ion and an electron

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52
Q
A

NAD

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53
Q
A

NAD+

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54
Q
A

NADH

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55
Q

When a molecule of NAD has accepted two hydrogen atoms with
their electrons,

A

it is reduced. When it loses the electrons it is
oxidised

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56
Q
A
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57
Q
A
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58
Q

FAD works in association with a

A

a “dehydrogenase” enzyme.
The reaction removes two hydrogen atoms; each a proton with one electron. Both
hydrogen atoms bond with FAD. This reaction does not release an H+ into solution like the
reduction of NAD does

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59
Q
A

FAD

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60
Q

Coenzyme A CoAis a coenzyme

A

a coenzyme the synthesis the citric acid cycle and oxidation of fatty acids , notable for its role in , and the oxidation of pyruvate in

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61
Q

STAGES OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION

A

GLYCOLYSIS
LINK REACTION
KREB CYCLE
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

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62
Q
A
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63
Q

Glyco-lysis is the

A

plitting, or lysis, of glucose.
★ It is a multi-step process in which a glucose molecule with six
carbon atomsis eventually split into two molecules of
pyruvate, each with three carbon atoms

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64
Q

Glycolysis takes place in the

A

cytoplasmof a cell.
★ NO oxygen is used in this step: so common for both aerobic and
anaerobic respiration

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65
Q

Glucose enters cells by

A

Secondary Active transport
By facilitated Diffusion through GLUT
channels

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66
Q
A
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67
Q
A
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68
Q
A
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69
Q

GLYCOLYSIS -PIPLOSS

A

 PHOSPHORYLATION
 ISOMERISM
 PHOSPHORYLATION
 LYSIS
 OXIDATION WITH SILENT ADDITION OF A PHOPHATE GROUP
 SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
 SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION

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70
Q

Why Phosphorylate Glucose?

A

1.The addition of the phosphate group increases the
energy in the molecule, making it less stable, and more
reactive, so that it can be broken down.
2.Glucose concentration is higher inside the cell than outside, there is
pressure for it to move back out of the cell.
By converting it to G6P, it is no longer part of the glucose concentration
Gradient.
The phosphorylation adds a charged phosphate group so the glucose 6
phosphate cannot easily cross the cell membrane.

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71
Q

ENERGY YIELD IN GLYCOLYSIS

A
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72
Q
A
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73
Q
A
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74
Q
A
75
Q
A
76
Q
A
77
Q
A
78
Q
A
79
Q

NADH as well as
NAD+ cannot cross
the membrane, but

A

it can reduce
another molecule
that can cross the
membrane, so that
its electrons can
reach the electron
transport chain. This
method is termed
Shuttle system

80
Q
A
81
Q
A
82
Q
A
83
Q

tricarboxylic acid cycle, also called

A

the citric
acid cycle, or Krebs cycle.

84
Q

The Krebs cycle occurs in the

A

mitochondrial,matrix and generates a pool of chemical energy (ATP,
NADH, and FADH2) from the oxidation of pyruvate, the end
product of glycolysis

85
Q
A
86
Q
A
87
Q
A
88
Q
A
89
Q

For each turn of the krebs cycle

A

 Two carbon dioxide molecules are produced.
 One FAD and three NAD molecules are reduced.
 One ATP molecule is generated via an intermediate compound.

90
Q

Although part of aerobic respiration, the reactions of the Krebs cycle
make no use of

A

molecular oxygen.

91
Q

However, oxygen is necessary for the final stage of

A

aerobic
respiration, which is called oxidative phosphorylation

92
Q

The most important contribution of the Krebs cycle
to the cell’s energetics is the

A

release of hydrogens, which can be used
in oxidative phosphorylation to provide energy to make ATP.

93
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation is the

A

synthesis of ATP
from ADP and Pi, using energy from oxidation
reactions in aerobic respiration

94
Q

It has two closely connected components of oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • the electron transport chain
  • chemiosmosis
95
Q

The electron transport chain is a collection of

A

of membrane embedded proteins called electron carriers organized into four large complexes I to IV

96
Q

ETC POSITIONED

A

They are positioned close together which allows the
electrons to pass from carrier to carrier.

97
Q
A
98
Q

The inner membrane of the mitochondria is impermeable to

A

hydrogen ions so these electron carriers are required
to pump the protons across the membrane to establish the
concentration gradient

99
Q

whats happening NADH

A

 NADH enters the ETC at complex I and moves a total of
10 H+ ions through the ETC (4 from complex I, 4 from
complex III, and 2 from complex IV).
 ATP-synthase synthesizes 1 ATP for 4 H+ ions.
 Therefore, 1 NADH = 10 H+, and 10/4 H+ per ATP = 2.5
ATP per NADH

100
Q

whats happening FADH

A

FADH2 enters the ETC at complex II and moves a total
of 6 H+ ions through the ETC (4 from complex III and 2
from complex IV).
 ATP-synthase synthesizes 1 ATP for 4 H+ ions.
 Therefore, 1 FADH2 = 6 H+, and 6/4 H+ per ATP = 1.5 ATP
per NADH

101
Q
A
102
Q
A
103
Q

Why does aerobic respiration yield fewer molecules of ATP
than the theoretical maximum?

A

 some ATP used to actively transport pyruvate (into the mitochondrion);
 some ATP used to (actively) transport H (+) from (reduced) NAD, formed in glycolysis / into the mitochondrion;
 some energy released in ETC, is not used to transport H+ (across inner membrane) / is released as heat;
 not all the H+ movement (back across membrane), is used to generate ATP / is through ATP synth(et)ase;
 not all the, reduced NAD / red NAD / NADH, is used to feed into the ETC

104
Q
A
105
Q
A
106
Q

Outline how ATP is made in oxidative phosphorylation.

A
107
Q

Role of Oxygen

A

 1 used in, oxidative phosphorylation /ETC ;
 2 final electron acceptor ;
 3 proton acceptor ; 4 forms water ;
 5 allows ETC to continue ;
 6 ref. to ATP produced

108
Q

What properties of the mitochondrial inner membrane allow chemiosmosis
to occur?

A

 (mostly) impermeable to H+ ions / protons
✓large surface area
✓presence of, ATP synthase / stalked particles ✓

109
Q
A
110
Q

BETA OXIDATION

A
111
Q
A

mitochondria

112
Q

Mitochondria have two

A

phospholipid membranes

113
Q

the outer membrane of mitodhondria

A

 Smooth and Permeable to several small molecules
 This allows movement of substances required and produced by the link reaction, krebs cycle and O.P such as
O2,CO2,ADP and Pi.

114
Q

the inner membrane of mitodhondria

A

 Folded with cristae: cristae provides large surface area
 Less permeable
 Have all proteins of the electron transport chain and has ATP synthase

115
Q

The intermembrane space of mitochondria

A

 Has a low pH due to the high concentration of protons
 The concentration gradient across the inner membrane is formed during oxidative phosphorylation and is essential for ATP synthesis

116
Q

The matrix of mitochondria

A

 Is an aqueous solution within the inner membranes of the mitochondrion
 Contains ribosomes, enzymes and circular mitochondrial DNA necessary to make proteins for the mitochondria to
function

117
Q

Effect of poisons on respiration

A
118
Q
A
119
Q

Rotenone,

A

a botanical pesticide, is an inhibitor of one of the
enzymes of Complex I of the electron transport chain.
 In the presence of this insecticide, electrons from NADH
cannot enter the electron transport chain, resulting in an
inability to produce ATP from the oxidation of NADH.

120
Q

effects of rotenone

A
121
Q

CYANIDE

A
  • cytochrome oxidase can no longer transfer electrons, then the rest
    of the electron transport chain will quickly back up and come to a
    halt.
  • If electrons are no longer moving through the transport chain, protons
    will no longer be pumped out of the matrix and into the
    intermembrane space causing the gradient to weaken and
    eventually disappear.
122
Q

effects of cyanide

A

NADH and FADH2 will not be oxidised
* Kreb and link reaction would stop
* Less or no ATP production
* Muscles fail to contrac

123
Q

Mitochondrial uncoupling refers to the

A

dissociation of
electron-dependent oxygen consumption from ATP
generation within the respiratory chain

124
Q
A
125
Q

Uncoupling can be done by

A

uncoupling agent or
uncoupling proteins

126
Q

DNP allows

A

protons to travel down their gradient and back into
the mitochondrial matrix without passing through ATP synthase.
Thus, it reduces ATP production in cellular respiration.
The energy of the gradient is dissipated in the form of heat,
raising body temperature.

127
Q

DNP was removed from the market because

A

it caused deaths
due to hyperthermia (severely elevated body temperature), and
also because it was linked to cataracts and vision loss

128
Q
A
129
Q

An uncoupler or uncoupling agent is a

A

molecule that disrupts oxidative
phosphorylation by uncoupling the reactions of ATP synthesis from the electron
transport chain

130
Q

EFFECT OF DNP

A

any four from:
 1 ETC / electron transport chain, functions as normal ;
 2 H+ / protons, pumped into intermembrane space ;
 3 proton gradient established ;
 4 most, H+ / protons, diffuse through, ;
 5 into matrix ; 6 less / fewer, H+ / protons, pass through ATP synthase ;
 7 less ATP produced

131
Q

symptoms of DNP

A

(c)(ii) any two from: 1 tiredness ; 2 weight loss ; 3 increased, heart rate / breathing rate

132
Q

What is the difference between an inhibitor and an uncoupler?

A

nhibitors block oxidation and reduce both ATP generation and
oxygen consumption; this is in contrast to uncouplers, which disrupt
the mitochondrial membrane and reduce ATP production but
increase oxygen consumption.

133
Q

Oligomycin is an antibiotic that inhibits proton flow through the proton
channel of ATP synthase. Describe how this would affect:

A

ATP synthesis
Electron transport
Oxygen consumption

134
Q

Adipose tissue

A

is specialized tissue that functions as the
major storage site for fat in the form of triglycerides

135
Q

Adipose tissue is found in mammals in two
different forms

A

white adipose tissue and
* brown adipose tissue(common in new born infants and
hibernating mammals

136
Q
A
137
Q

BAT cells

A
138
Q
A
139
Q

Sometimes cells experience conditions with little or no oxygen
There are several consequences when there is not enough oxygen
available for respiration

A
  • There is no final acceptor of electrons from the electron transport
    chain
  • The electron transport chain stops functioning
  • No more ATP is produced via oxidative phosphorylation
  • Reduced NAD and FAD aren’t oxidised by an electron carrier
  • No oxidised NAD and FAD are available for dehydrogenation in
    the Krebs cycle
  • The Krebs cycle and link reaction stops
140
Q

Some cells are able to oxidise the reduced NAD
produced during glycolysis so

A

it can be used for
further hydrogen transport.
This means that glycolysis can continue and small
amounts of ATP are still produced

141
Q

 This means that glycolysis can continue and small amounts of ATP
are still produced
Different cells use different pathways to achieve this

A

 Yeast and microorganisms use ethanol fermentation
 Other microorganisms and mammalian muscle cells use lactate
fermentation

142
Q
A
143
Q

ADH

A
144
Q

Alcoholic fermentation is not a reversible process

A

1.Pyruvate is converted to ethanal by decarboxylation, catalysed by
the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.
2.Ethanal then accepts a hydrogen atom from NADH,
producing ethanol. (alcohol dehydrogenase)
3.This process regenerates NAD and allows for the continuation of
glycolysis.
4.The formation of ethanol cannot be reversed so if it gets to a high
enough level it will kill the organism.

145
Q
A
146
Q
A
147
Q
A
148
Q

In this kactate pathway

A

reduced NAD transfers its hydrogens
to pyruvate to form lactate.
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase
Pyruvate is the hydrogen acceptor
The final product lactate can be further metabolised

149
Q
A
150
Q

the cori cycle purposes

A
151
Q

Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Consumption
(EPOC)

A

 The oxidation of lactate back to pyruvate needs extra oxygen.
 Post exercise uptake of extra oxygen to pay back oxygen deficit is termed
Oxygen Debt/EPOC
 It explains why animals breathe deeper and faster after exercise.

152
Q

NEED FOR OXYGEN DEBT…

A

To break down lactate into CO2 and water in the
liver
To replace oxygen borrowed from HB and myoglobin
To replenish ATP, Phosphocreatine and glycogen
To reduce body temperature
To return to normal breathing and pulse rate

153
Q
A
154
Q
A
155
Q

The energy values of
respiratory substrates depend
on

A

the number of hydrogen
atoms per molecule.
* Lipids have a higher energy
density than carbohydrates or
proteins

156
Q
A
157
Q

RQ full form

A

THE RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT

158
Q
A
159
Q

RQ of carbohydrate

A

1

160
Q

RQ of lipid

A

0.7

161
Q

RQ of protein

A

0.9

162
Q
A
163
Q
A
164
Q
A
165
Q

The respiratory quotient due to the respiration of fat (RQ =
0.7) is

A

significantly lower than when carbohydrates are
respired (RQ = 1.0).
 This is because fats have a greater proportion of hydrogen
relative to oxygen .More oxygen is required for the
respiration of fats.

166
Q

The respiratory quotient when

A

proteins and amino acids are
respired is typically 0.9.

167
Q

During ethanol fermentation in lettuce roots, glucose is partially broken
down. This process is represented by the following equation:

A

glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
 Calculate the RQ value.

168
Q

Plants rarely respire proteins. If they did,

A

the ammonia
gas formed would be harmful if not quickly lost from the
cells of the organism

169
Q

The RQ can also give an indication of under or overfeeding:

A

 An RQ value of more than 1 suggests excessive carbohydrate/calorie
intake
 An RQ value of less than 0.7 suggests underfeeding

170
Q

 The RQ cannot be calculated for

A

anaerobic respiration
in muscle cells because no oxygen is used and no
carbon dioxide is produced during lactate fermentation

171
Q

For yeast cells, the RQ tends towards infinity

A

as no
oxygen is used while carbon dioxide is still being
produced

172
Q

RATE OF RESPIRATION
Measured in two ways

A

 Using Respirometer
 Using a redox dye

173
Q
A
174
Q

Using redox indicators to investigate anaerobic
respiration in yeast

A

 Dehydrogenation happens regularly throughout the different stages of respiration
 The enzyme dehydrogenase catalyses the production of reduced NAD in glycolysis
 When DCPIP or methylene blue are present they take up hydrogens from the organic
compounds and get reduced instead of NAD Both redox indicators undergo the same
colour change when they are reduced Blue → colourless

175
Q

The faster the rate of respiration, the faster the rate of hydrogen release and the faster
the dyes get reduced and change colour

A

This means that the rate of colour change can
correspond to the rate dehydrogenase would be working at and therefore, the rate of
respiration in yeast
 The rate of respiration is inversely proportional to the time taken Rate of respiration (sec-1)
= 1 / time (sec)

176
Q
A
177
Q

Conditions to grow Rice

A

 Wet or Dry
 Rice grows in “paddies”
 Fields where soil is purposefully flooded
 Water-tolerant plant
 Weeds cannot compete b/c they are not water
tolerant
 Rice paddies are muddy
 Contain microorganisms that use aerobic respiration
and take up all available oxygen
 Rice needs to adapt to survive in wet conditions

178
Q

Adaptations for aerobic respiration

A

1.Growing taller
 Top parts of leaves and flower spikes above water
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged through stomata
. Aerenchyma Tissue
 Tissue in stems made of loosely packed cells
 Store air
 Enable gas to diffuse through it to other parts of plant, even underwater parts
 air trapped in between ridges of underwater leaves
 LeavesHydrophobic & corrugated
 series of parallel ridges and grooves so as to give added rigidity and strength.
 Holds thin layer of air in contact with leaf surface

179
Q

Adaptations for anaerobic respiration

A

 Plants use ethanol fermentation during anaerobic respiration
 Toxic ethanol is produced which can build up in the plant tissue causing damage
 Rice plants can tolerate higher levels of toxic ethanol compared to other plants
 They also produce more ethanol dehydrogenaseThis is the enzyme that breaks down ethanol
 The resilience that rice plants have towards ethanol allows them to carry out anaerobic
respiration for longer so enough ATP is produced for the plant to survive and actively grow

180
Q
A
181
Q

ADP/ATP translocase transports

A

ATP synthesized from
oxidative phosphorylation into the cytoplasm, where it
can be used as the principal energy currency of the
cell to power reactions.

182
Q

After the consequent hydrolysis of

A

ATP into ADP, ADP
is transported back into the mitochondrial matrix,
where it can be rephosphorylated to ATP.

183
Q

phosphate must also be imported into the matrix.

A

This
is accomplished by action of the phosphate
translocase, which is a symport that moves
phosphate into the mitochondrial matrix along with a
proton

184
Q
A

A2 LEVEL 9700 (2 decks)

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