Resource security Flashcards
A resource
any aspect of the natural environment that can be used to meet human needs
Resource security
the ability of a country (or whole world) to ensure safe, reliable and sustainable flow of resources to maintain existing levels of development and allow future generations to advance
Exploitation
the action of using natural resources to the fullest or for the most profitable use
Exploration
the process of searching an area with the intention of finding and mapping natural resources
Flow resources
resources that are renewable and can be replaced, examples include fresh water and timber - commonly expressed in terms of the annual rates at which they are generated
Reserves
the part of the resource that is economically, legally and technically viable to extract. Resources can be converted reserves if there is technological advancement
Resource frontier
areas with natural resources exploited for the first time –> difficult to extract
- geographically remote
- environmentally sensitive
- politically unstable
e.g Chad, Africa
Arctic
Resource peak
this marks the point when the maximum production rate of a resource occurs with production declining in subsequent years
Stock resources
non-renewable resources which can be permanently expended - their quality is expressed in absolute terms e.g. oil
‘fixed’ and finite supply once they are used they cannot be replenished
Non-renewable energy resources
are those that have been built up, or have evolved over time. They cannot be used without depleting the stock because their rate of formation is so low that it is meaningless in terms of human lifespan
they include primary fossil fuels and uranium which is used in nuclear energy
Renewable energy resources
yield a continuous flow that can be consumed in any given period of time without endangering future consumption, as long as current use does not exceed renewal during the same period
includes solar power, hydroelectricity power, geothermal energy, wave and tidal power, wind power and biomass sources
Critical renewable energy resources
sustainable energy resources from forests, plants and other biomass, may be depleted by overuse e.g. if they are exploited at a faster rate than they are replaced
Non-critical renewable energy resources
everlasting resources such as tides, waves, running water, wind and solar power
Resource management
involves controlling the exploitation and use of resources in relation to the associated economic and environmental costs
involved with sustainable development for example, water can only truly be considered renewable at any location when there is carefully controlled usage, treatment and release
what does the 2D McKelvey Reserve Box show
The degree of geological certainty and economic feasibility of reserves and resources
what is security of supply of resources?
it relates to a combination of physical risks (the accessibility of the resources available in an area or country) and geopolitical risks (include the concentration of production in a relatively small number of countries, and confidence of any individual country has in trading with producers who will seek to exert their market power)
what do physical risks depend on?
the quantity of the resource that has been found
the quality of the resource in that reserve
its physical location and accessibility
the technology available to access the resource economically
give an example of a resource frontier on a national scale
in the UK, Scotland could be identified as a ‘peripheral’ region far away from the core in Southeast England, however development of North Sea oil reserves from 1980s saw the northeast of Scotland become a resource frontier - the local economy boomed as it became a base for the oil industry
How is a resource peak represented?
by a bell-shaped curve on a graph of production (Hubbert)
what is conventional oil and gas?
refers to petroleum, or crude oil, and raw natural gas extracted from the ground by conventional means and methods
what is unconventional reserves?
hydrocarbon reserves that have low permeability and porosity and so are difficult to produce. They require enhanced recovery techniques such as fracture stimulation e.g. shale deposits, tar sands and heavy oils
What did Hubbert accurately predict?
That conventional oil production from the 48 mainland states of the USA would peak between 1965 and 1970 and then enter a decline which suggests that, at any scale, the rate of oil production tends to follow a bell-shaped curve
US mainland oil production followed Hubbert’s predictions, peaking at 9.6 million barrels per day in 1972 and by mid 2000s had fallen to 1940 levels
Why is the sustainability of resource development a concern?
as low income countries develop, their resource use will increase
the environmental impact of current levels of resource use is an issue (goes beyond the carrying capacity of the environment)
there needs to be careful management of current resource use so that future generations can have access to the resources that they require
what is resource depletion?
the use of resources faster than they can be replenished and is a concept that mostly applies to non-renewable fossil fuels
what is supply-side management?
involves seeking methods of increasing the supply of resources
increasing exploration efforts for existing non-renewable resources
increasing research efforts to develop: more sustainable alternative or substitute resources to replace unsustainable ones, new technologies that are more sustainable and cause less environmental impact
what is demand-side management?
involves reducing consumption of resources, individually and at all other geographical scales
changing individual behaviour and lifestyle to discourage wasteful and/or extravagant use of resources
developing technology to enable more efficient use of resources
recycling
reducing population growth so there is less pressure on resources e.g. China’s one child policy
regulatory controls and frameworks as part of global governance e.g. Agenda 21, Kyoto Protocol
how may environmental impacts be managed?
Technological advances such as catalytic converters on vehicles, reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Flue-gas desulphurisation (FDG) plant and carbon capture storage reduced emissions of sulphur and carbon into the atmosphere from power stations
seeking alternative supplies of resources, particularly for energy
what is a cost-benefit analysis?
a systematic analysis of the advantages and disadvantages likely to result from a development project, where an objective value is allocated to all economic, social and environmental aspects identified
what strategic strategies does the global energy system face in the 21st century?
the continued depletion of non-renewable fossil fuels
the growing risk of disruptions to energy supplies
the threat of environmental damage caused by energy use
the persistence of energy poverty in less developed countries
what percentage of the three major fossil fuels do developed countries consume?
75%. As China and India industrialise their consumption continues to increase
how long are each of the fossil fuels expected to last?
oil expected to last for 40 years
natural gas for 60 years
and coal for over 100 years
what percentage do fossil fuels contribute to world energy production?
80%. Energy rich nations have the wealth and technology to exploit these reserves and many are also large consumers of their own energy resources e.g. USA and China
what two major trends have emerged as the reserves of fossil fuels in richer countries go beyond peak production?
- more exploration and production of gas and oil reserves in less developed countries where governments have given exploration rights to TNCs whose investment and expertise has helped resource development e.g. Indonesia, Chad and South Sudan
- increases in oil and gas prices, together with advances in technology have prompted the development of unconventional reserves including tight reserves from shale rock in N. America and Europe and oil sands in Canada and Venezuela
Describe the pattern of global coal production
coal is sometimes called the ‘fuel of the past’ because it is the most polluting fossil fuel
production in 2013 was 2.5 times greater than 1973
movement away from deep mining as now the bulk of coal production is from open cast mining
Key percentages:
top 5 countries that account for 75% of production are China (45.5%), USA (11.6%), Indonesia (7.4%), Australia (6.4%) and India (4.1%)
the largest producers consume much of their own coal for power generation e.g. China (57%), USA (97%), Indonesia (73%) and Australia (90%)
Describe the pattern of global oil production
There is a more limited supply.
More than 70% of production is in the Middle East, the USA and Russia
the cost of extraction varies and affects production e.g. it is much easier to extract oil in the Middle East than it is in Alaska (oil is deep below permafrost layers)
Less conventional reserves such as oil sands and heavy oil in Canada and Venezuela has enabled these countries to become important producers
Geological factors influence the global pattern of oil supply - extraction tends to be more viable in Middle Eastern countries which have oilfields compared to the North Sea
Describe the pattern of natural gas production
It has become an important energy resource within the last 50 years. Previously technology was insufficiently advanced to transport and store natural gas
in 2013, the world natural gas production reached a new record of almost 3,500 billion cubic metres
largest reserves found in Russia
production is dominated by a few countries
describe global patterns of nuclear energy production
the primary energy source for nuclear fission is uranium
there are large amounts of high-grade uranium in Kazakhstan (38%), Canada (16%), Australia (11%) - continental shield areas of the Earth
Most nuclear energy is produced where there is the technology and the political will
France, US and Russia are the leading producers
Describe the pattern of renewable energy
leading producers are China with HEP, Brazil with HEP and bioethanol, India with wind and solar, Nigeria with solar and biomass
By what percentage is energy use increasing?
2%. Energy consumption has stabilised in developed countries due to technology in energy efficiency
Describe patterns of energy consumption in high income countries
high standards of living demanding more electrical and electronic appliances
high rates of vehicle use
growth has leveled because appliances and vehicles are becoming more energy efficient e.g. hybrid cars
high energy-intensive industries are in decline because of global shifts in manufacturing to developing countries
population growth is more stable
increased awareness of environmental impacts of better energy use (campaigns)
better technologies and incentives for energy conservation
describe patterns of energy consumption in developing and emerging economies
rapid industrialisation - industrial development relies on energy supplies
urbanisation - as more people live in urban areas, they have greater access to energy supplies
rising incomes - as populations become more affluent they aspire to the same living standards enjoyed in rich countries, so they use more appliances and vehicles
energy producing countries are using their energy wealth as a trigger for development and as more reserves are exploited, some production is used by the home market
describe the pattern of coal consumption
dominated by China, the USA, Russia and India (account for 75% of the consumption)
describe the pattern of oil consumption
the largest consumer is the USA, followed by China, Japan, India and Russia
oil accounts for 90% of fuel energy (transport sector) but has been displaced by gas and nuclear for electricity production
Describe the pattern of natural gas consumption
USA, Russia, Iran, China, Japan and Canada are the largest consumers
the main importers are Japan, Germany and Italy
Gas now accounts globally for one fifth of energy consumption due to new discoveries in many countries, development of pipelines, development of liquefied natural gas plants and carriers to transport it
Gas is less polluting (emits half of the carbon dioxide generated by coal) and development of gas combined cycle technology for more efficient electricity generation
What is energy security?
the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price, it is a major goal for most countries
many countries e.g. Japan consume more than they produce
some countries that are resource rich in energy have a surplus
describe the changing patterns of energy production
coal - more production shifting to open cast mining and in the southern hemisphere e.g. Australia, South Africa
Russia has emerged over the last 20-30 years as the second main producer of both gas and oil
Fracking - is releasing more supplies of natural gas and oil
describe the changing patterns of energy consumption
despite affluence, energy consumption in HICs is growing less quickly due to better conservation methods
NEEs- increasing consumption rapidly as they industrialised (slowed since 2014)
describe the changing patterns of energy trade
Western Europe is becoming more reliant on Russia for gas supplies - may cause tension and political conflict
OPEC - still has some influence in oil production and trade but less than in the past due to discoveries of oil in non-OPEC countries and unconventional sources in developed countries
trade in coal and gas is hindered by high transport costs/lack of infrastructure
energy TNC’s e.g. BP, Shell are becoming increasingly important in controlling exploration, production, distribution and trade
What is geopolitics?
the study of international relations, as influenced by geographical factors
(understanding the relationships between a country and the rest of the world)
Explain one form of geopolitics creating its own alliances
OPEC is an economic alliance of countries with a surplus of oil that they are able to export to developed countries which need it more, it is a major influence on trade in oil, being responsible for about 50% of crude oil exports
OPEC
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
a good example of a geopolitical relationship between countries
12 member countries
attempts to control supply to the world market to influence price of oil which requires cooperation
restricted supply of oil twice in 1970 which caused huge price hikes in oil
reduce the use and depletion of reserves to increase sustainability
influence is still strong
not always been a united organisation - external geopolitics as there are different political relationships outside the group
describe how conflict may affect energy cooperation
Russia warned the west energy dependence on Russia could create obstacles if Moscow is not treated as an equal partner in future agreements. Its involvement in Syria may lead to sanctions and could put Europe’s gas supply at risk who are considering fracking as an alternative
At what rate is the population expected to increase?
2 to 3 billion by 2050
define energy mix
the composition of different sources of energy used in a country or globally. Primary energy mix refers to those used to produce all secondary energy
what is primary energy?
energy sources obtained in their raw material or natural form, such as oil, natural gas, wind or running water - not usable until converted into heat or mechanical action
what is secondary energy?
energy that is transformed or converted from primary energy sources into manufactured sources of power which are usable, such as heat, electricity or petroleum
how much do fossil fuels supply global energy needs?
coal - 29%
oil - 31%
gas - 21%
what are the advantages of using oil?
crucial in road transport and petrochemical industries
the leading tradable commodity
flexible, easy to transport fuel
what are the disadvantages of using oil?
high price volatility
geopolitical tensions in areas with the largest reserves
market is dominated by leading oil-producing countries and large TNCs
what are the advantages of using natural gas?
cleanest of the fossil fuels
flexible and efficient fuel for power and heat generation
increased proven reserves from unconventional sources
what are the disadvantages of using natural gas?
reserves increasingly offshore or in more remote areas
large investment requirement for gas transport and distribution
increasingly long supply routes with high infrastructure costs
what are the advantages of using coal?
wider geographical distribution and more plentiful reserves
new technologies to improve environmental performance
stable prices
what are the disadvantages of using coal?
high emissions of carbon, particulates and other pollutants
environmental mitigation of CCS have negative impact on energy efficiency
what are the advantages of using nuclear energy?
high energy efficient fuel
relatively large reserves of uranium
moderate and predictable cost of electricity over the life of a power station
excellent replacement for fossil fuels in generating thermally sourced electricity
atmospheric pollution is much less than with fossil fuels
what are the disadvantages of using nuclear energy?
high investment and compliance costs involved
potential for accidents e.g. Chernobyl
potential target for terrorism
waste disposal difficult
difficult in finding suitable sires
plutonium is a by-product which can be used in nuclear weapons
what country uses 100% renewable energy?
Iceland - from geothermal and HEP sources
what are components of demand?
the way that energy is used - industrial, commercial, domestic and transport
what are the factors affecting a country’s energy mix?
availability of energy sources within the country
inertia (mix that already exists)
government energy policy (energy security_
geopolitics
level of development
physical/locational conditions
diversity (not reliant on one source)
what is hydraulic fracturing (fracking)?
where water and chemicals are pumped in at pressure to fracture the rock and liberate the oil and gas from the pore spaces
Define climate
The average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time
Define geology
type of rock in an area
structure of earth
Drainage
surface runoff of water over impermeable rock
Describe the formation of coal
360 million years ago, plant + debris accumulated on sea bed
Under layers, decomposition was slow
Decomposing material sank under heat + pressure
Reduced moisture and volatility increased the quality of coal
Describe the formation of oil and gas
Organic material settles at bottom of sea
organic matter fossilised by sediment; pressure and heat forms oil. v hot = gas
gas moves up to then moved down to impermeable rock= gas rock –> trapped reservoir
UK Energy Mix
lower demand; more dependant on renewables
oil = 38%
gas = 38%
renewables = 17%
coal = 6%
other = 1%
How does climate affect UK’s energy mix
windiest country in Europe
onshore + offshore wind
How does geology affect UK’s energy mix
North Sea oil + gas reserves
coal is not economically viable
fracking + nuclear growth
How does drainage affect UK’s energy mix
HEP used in peak demand
lack of space
DAPL positive environmental impacts
- less CO2 emitted than coal
- reduces need for imports
- land must be restored (by law)
DAPL negative environmental impacts
- oil spills polluted rivers
- destruction of land for DAPL
- crude oil released CO2
- contaminated aquifers
DAPL (the Dakota Access Pipeline)
Fracking Shale Gas, North Dakota
oil distribution from N. Dakota to Illinois for refinery
