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researcher methods Flashcards

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1
Q

definition of IV

A

the variable directly manipulated by the researcher

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2
Q

definition of DV

A

the variable being measured in the study

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3
Q

definition of operationalisation

A

making the variables in a investigation detailed and specific

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4
Q

what’s a extraneous variable

A

a variable that is not controlled, which could affect the results of the study

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5
Q

what’s a confounding variable

A

an extraneous variable that effects the results of the study so that the effect of the IV is not truly seen

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6
Q

Situational variables

A

aspects of the environment that might affect the participants behaviour eg.noise, lighting
how the study is conducted could also introduce situational variables
- participants may improve if they repeat the study this is called the order effect
- participants could become tired after repeating the study

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7
Q

how to control situational variables

A
  • to ensure that the situation and procedure is exactly the same for each participant (standardised procedure)
  • to control order effects researchers can use counterbalance
    counterbalance - giving half of the participants contition A and the other half condition B
  • ## to control order effects is to assign the participants randomly
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8
Q

Participant variable

A
  • each participants varies from one and other this could affect the results
  • mood
  • intelligence
  • anxiety
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9
Q

how to control participant variables

A
  • use the same participants in each condition of the study, so they can be compared
  • randomly allocate participants to condition of the study to prevent only a certain type of person being in one condition of the study
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10
Q

Experimenter effects

A

The experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave - this is called experimenter bias.

The experimenter is often totally unaware of the influence which s/he is exerting and the cues may be very subtle but they may have an influence nevertheless.

Also, the personal attributes (e.g. age, gender, accent, manner etc.) of the experiment can affect the behaviour of the participant

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11
Q

Demand characteristics

A

These are all the clues in an experiment which convey to the participant the purpose of the research, which may mean that the participant with alter their behaviour

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12
Q

how to control demand characteristics

A

Single-blind technique:
When information about the study is with held from the
participant

Double-blind technique:
when both the participant and researcher are unaware
of the aims of the study

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13
Q

what is a hypothesis

A

is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predicted will be the outcome of the study
- usually involves proposing a possible relationship or difference between two variables

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14
Q

what’s a null hypothesis

A

-states the results or outcome will find no or very little effect
- one variable does not affect the other
- states were is not a relationship between the two variables being tested
- there are no differences between conditions

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15
Q

what is Alternative hypothesis

A
  • states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied ( one variable has an effect on the other)
  • it states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated
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16
Q

Directional hypothesis

A
  • a theory makes a clear claim, so the direction of the hypothesis can be directed
    eg. adults will correctly recall more words that children
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17
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A
  • if a theory cannot make a clear prediction and the evidence is mixed, then a non-directional hypothesis is used
  • it predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified
    eg. there will be a difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children and adults
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18
Q

Target population

A

is the group of individuals an investigation is looking to study

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19
Q

what’s a sample

A

is the group of people who take part in the investigation

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20
Q

Random Sampling Technique

A
  • everyone in the target population has a equal chance of being selected
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21
Q

Strengths of random sampling

A
  • provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample
  • helps control participant variables
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22
Q

Weaknesses of Random sampling

A
  • time consuming
  • some people may refuse to participate
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23
Q

Volunteer Sampling Technique

A
  • putting together a sample of participants who have volunteered to take part in the research
    eg advert on social media
  • can be directed to the target population
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24
Q

Strengths of Volunteer Sampling

A
  • easy to arrange
  • convenient
  • ethical as people will only apply if they want to participate
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25
Q

Weaknesses of Volunteer Technique

A
  • not representative of the target population
  • not everyone in the target population will apply
  • biased sample - volunteers can be considered as having a particular personality type
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26
Q

Stratified Sampling Technique

A
  • researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and works out the proportions of each
    type of people within it
  • once the different types of people are identified(subgroups), a random sample will be selected from each group so that they are represented proportionately in the sample
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27
Q

Strengths of Stratified Sampling

A
  • deliberate effort to ensure that the sample is completely representative
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28
Q

Weaknesses of Stratified Sampling

A
  • time consuming as subgroups need to be identified and calculations made
  • people can refuse to take part
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29
Q

Opportunity Sampling Technique

A
  • uses people from the target population available at the time and willing to take part
  • based on convenience
  • its obtained by asking members of the population of interest if they would take part in your study
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30
Q

Strength of Opportunity Sampling

A
  • quick and convenient method
  • economical
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31
Q

Weaknesses of Opportunity Sampling

A
  • can lead to a biased sample
  • not representative sample as the researcher is likely to choose people who are ‘helpful”
  • finding are likely to not be generalisable
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32
Q

Laboratory experiment

A
  • conducted under highly controlled conditions
  • researchers decides where the experiment will take place
  • uses a standardised procedure
  • extraneous variables are controlled
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33
Q

strengths of lab experiment

A
  • easy to replicate - reliable
  • allow precise control of extraneous variables
  • most scientific
  • cause and effect can be established which helps with internal validity
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34
Q

Weaknesses of lab experiment

A
  • low ecological validity as artificial setting might produce unnatual behaviour that doesn’t reflect on real life
    -demand characteristics
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35
Q

Field experiments

A
  • done in everyday environments of the participants
  • experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real life setting
  • example Holfing (1966) hospital experiment
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36
Q

Strengths of field experiment

A
  • higher ecological validity– more likely to reflect on real life behaviour
  • cause and effect between IV and DV
  • demand characteristics are less likely
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37
Q

Weaknesses of field experiments

A
  • less control over extraneous variables
  • difficult to replicate
  • if convert participants would not know they are taking part in the study
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38
Q

Natural experiment

A
  • conducted in the everyday environment of the participants
  • experimenter has no control over the IV
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39
Q

Strengths of natural experiment

A
  • high ecological validity
  • demand characteristics are less likely as participates don’t know they are taking part
  • can be used in situations in which it would be unethical to manipulate IV
40
Q

Weaknesses of Natural experiment

A
  • may be issues with participant variables as random allocation not possible
  • time consuming
  • expensive
  • no control over extraneous variables
41
Q

Ecological validity

A
  • the degree to which an investigation represents real life experiences
42
Q

experimenter effects

A

these are the ways that the experimenter can accidentally influence the participants through their appearance or behaviour

43
Q

demand characteristics

A

the clues in a experiment that leads the participants to think they know what the researcher is looking for (experimenters body language)

44
Q

Structured interview

A
  • questions asked in a set/standarised order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received
  • based on structured, closed-ended questions
45
Q

Semi-structured interview

A
  • combination of pre-set questions and open ended questions
  • has some flexibility to allow free-flowing conversations
46
Q

Unstructured interviews

A
  • more like a guided conversation than a strict structured interview
  • contains open ended questions that can be asked in any order
47
Q

Structured interview strengths and weakness

A

strengths
- gather alot of information from a large sample quickly
- interviewer requires little training
- easy to replicate
Weakness
-they can only access superficial information from the responders
-do not allow responders to answer freely

48
Q

Semi-structured interview strengths and weaknesses

A

Strengths
- Encourages two-way communication
-Provides an opportunity so that interviewers can learn answers to questions and the reasons behind the answers
- Allows respondents time to open up about sensitive issues.
-Provides qualitative data to compare to previous and future data.
Weakness
- more time consuming
-interviewer requires more training

49
Q

Unstructured interview stregths and weakness

A

Strength
-gather the most in depth info
- free to explore the beliefs and attitudes of respondents fully
Weakness
- time consuming
- interviewers need to be fully trained
- cannot be replicated

50
Q

what is a questionnaire

A

-A research method consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents
-Questionnaires provide a cheap, quick and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample.

51
Q

open-ended questions

A

questions with no fixed response

52
Q

closed-ended questions

A

questions with fixed response to choose from

53
Q

meaning of correlation

A

the way of analysing relationships between variables

54
Q

meaning of co-variables

A

two variables that can be plotted against each other to indicate the type of relationship between them

55
Q

Strengths of questionnaires

A
  • inexpensive
  • ethical
  • good for gathering information from large samples
  • closed ended questions produce quantitive data - easy to analyse
  • researchers not present - may reduce social desirability effect
56
Q

Weaknesses of questionnaires

A
  • closed ended questions answers may not fit participant
  • open ended questions are difficult to analyse (qualitative data)
  • low response
  • participants may not be honest and want themselves to look better - low validity
57
Q

meaning of ethics

A

principles that govern a person’s behaviour or the conducting of an activity

58
Q

meaning of ethics in psychology

A

refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. Psychologists / researchers have a moral responsibility to protect participants from harm

59
Q

informed consent

A

-Participants / guardian must give their consent to take part in a study
-They must complete a consent form
-Should be informed of the procedure and aims of the study
-Must know what will happen with findings
-Given clear guidance on how to withdraw

60
Q

Confidentiality

A

-Participants should not be identifiable in research
-Records should be kept safe and then destroyed

61
Q

case study clive wearing

A

Clive Wearing (real name) was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis. This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused memory impairment.He suffers:anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident. Retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular incident. Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural knowledge). He could not transfer information from STM tLTM. His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories.

62
Q

Deception

A

-Researchers should not deceive (misleading / lying) participants
-If a participant is deceived they will not be able to give their informed consent
-If deception cannot be avoided, participants must be debriefed asap

63
Q

Right to withdraw

A

At the start of the experiment, participants should be informed that they can withdraw from at any point

The same applies to results – participants can ask for their results to be removed from the study

Incentives such as gifts / money should not be offered to forgo their right to withdraw

64
Q

Protection of participants

A

Participants should be protected from psychological and physical harm

If any part of the experiment could affect a participants, this should be highlighted to them at the start

Incentive should not be used to persuade participants to take part

65
Q

Case study

A

In-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community

Many methods may be used within a case study, e.g. observations, questionnaires, interviews, experiments and case histories.

Case studies generate qualitative data as researchers tend to rely on verbal descriptions of participants rather than numerical analysis

66
Q

case study strengths

A
  • useful way of studying a particular behaviour that cannot be obtained by other means
  • provides insight for further research
  • provides detailed (righ qualitative) information
67
Q

case study weaknesses

A
  • cannot be replicated
  • can’t generalise the results to the wider population
  • researchers own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias)
68
Q

what is the correlation technique

A

A correlation measures the relationship between two (or more) variables – co-variables

This is done without manipulating the variables, instead the variables are naturally occurring

Data is usually gathered via observation or questionnaires

A statement of “one variable causes the other “, is not made, instead only how two things occur together.

So cause and effect cannot be established.

69
Q

positive correlation

A

A relationship in which both co-variables increase / decrease at the same time.

For example: height and weight; taller people tend to be heavier

70
Q

negative correlation

A

A relationship in which as one co-variable increases, the other decreases

For example: height and temperature; as you climb the mountain it gets colder

71
Q

zero correlation

A

This is where there is no relationship between co-variables

For example: there is no relationship between the amount of chicken goujons eaten and level of intelligence

72
Q

strengths of correlation

A

-cheaper and less time consuming than experiments
-can be used when it is unethical to manipulate a variable – for example, investigating smoking and lung cancer
-allows the researcher to clearly and easily see if there is a relationship between variables

73
Q

weaknesses of correlation

A

-Even if there is a strong association between two variables, cannot assume that one causes the other
- cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect, as some other factor may be responsible for the findings

74
Q

are correlations better than experiments

A

Correlations are cheaper and less time-consuming than experimental research
Correlations are useful for investigating topics that would be difficult to study experimentally for ethical reasons.
However, correlations cannot establish cause and effect

75
Q

meaning of observation

A

watching what people do in certain situations or environments

76
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Studying spontaneous behaviour in an everyday environment
A researcher watches what people do and record what they see
Suitable for studying everyday, unaltered behaviour

77
Q

controlled/structured observations

A

If it is not practical for a researcher to wait for a behaviour to occur naturally, a controlled observation may be staged
normally take place in a laboratory

78
Q

Participant/non-participant observation

A

Participant observation is when the researcher joins in the group they are researching to get a deeper insight

Non-participant observation however is when a researcher does not join in and simply watches the group

79
Q

convert/overt observations

A

Covert observations are conducted without the participant being aware that they are being observed.

Overt observations are conducted with the participant’s knowledge that they are being observed. Controlled observations are mostly overt.
Naturalistic observations may be either covert or overt

80
Q

Strengths of observations

A

Cheap and easy to conduct, many observations can be arranged (large sample)

Controlled (structured) observations can be replicated, so they can be tested for reliability

Naturalistic observations can have greater ecological validity (real life)

81
Q

weaknesses of observations

A

Can be unreliable
Observers may not detect behaviour
Observers interpretation of what a behaviour means may differ

-May lack validity
Observer bias: the observer may interpret the observed behaviour based on their own views
Behaviours may not be a good measure of what is being tested

Ethical issues (covert and participant covert observations)
Lack of consent

82
Q

how can weaknesses be overcome on observations

A

Each type of behaviour should be systematically categorised (coded) based on a previously agreed scale.
Each observer needs to be well trained in how to record coded behaviour
More than one observer codes behaviour so that the results can be compared to check for agreement – inter-rate reliability
A practice study should be done before carrying out the real study, to identify any problems with behaviour categories

83
Q

normal distribution

A

Normal distribution refers to a distribution where the mean, mode and median are the same or very similar

If your data is normally distributed a large number of your values will fall close to the mean on either side

84
Q

skewed distribution

A

If your data is not normally distributed it produces a skewed distribution

This means that your mean, median and mode are not similar

So your frequency data is not spread evenly and your data is clustered at one end

85
Q
A
86
Q
A
87
Q

GRAVE stands for

A

Generalisability
Reliability
Applicability
Validity
Ethics

88
Q

Generalisability

A

A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalisations about

89
Q

Reliability

A

The consistency of a research study; if findings from research can be replicated and consistently find the same results, they are reliable

90
Q

how can reliabliity be improved

A
  1. inter-rater reliability
    The test-retest method assesses the consistency of a test. The degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior.
  2. It is easier to replicate (i.e., copy) a study if standardized procedure / instructions are used. This allows testing for consistency.
91
Q

Applicability

A

Are the results of this study useful or relevant for understanding people’s behavior in real life?

92
Q

validity in research

A

The concept of validity was formulated by Kelly (1927, p. 14) who stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure.

For example, a test of intelligence should measure intelligence and not something else (such as memory).

A distinction can be made between internal and external validity. These types of validity are relevant to evaluating the validity of a research study / procedure.

93
Q

meaning of internal validity
how can it be improved

A

Are the effects observed in an experiment due to manipulation of the IV, or something else?
So, there is a causal relationship between the IV and DV?

controlling extraneous variables
using standardized instructions
counter balancing
eliminating demand characteristics and investigator effects

94
Q

meaning of external validity
how can it be improved

A

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to outside of the research environment:
Ecological validity: to other settings
Generalized to the target population

External validity can be improved by setting experiments in a more natural setting
usingrandom samplingto select participants.

95
Q

meaning of external validity
how can it be improved

A

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to outside of the research environment:
Ecological validity: to other settings
Generalized to the target population

External validity can be improved by setting experiments in a more natural setting
usingrandom samplingto select participants.

96
Q

Milgram experiments GRAVE

A

G- White, male participants so the study lacks generalisability to thewider population (i.e.: females). All participants were American it isgeneralisable to to Westernised cultures

R- the procedure wasstandardisedfor each participant, the same materials were used for each participant, so can be replicated to check for reliability

A- the study does tell us a lot about obedience (e.g.: obedience in Nazi Germany)

V- the study lacksecological validitydue to the nature of the experiment; it is also unclear whether participants were displayingdemand characterisitcsrather than obedience in that they may have just been complying with the researcher

E -the studydeceivedparticipants and may have caused significantemotional distressdue to the nature of what they were doing

Psychology (4 decks)

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