Research methods: statistics Flashcards
quantitative data meaning
-data that is expressed numerically
-can be gained from individual scores such as the number of words recalled
strength of quantitative data
-quantitative data is more simple to analyse
-allows comparisons to be made been groups of data
-may be easier to make conclusions about behaviour (context)
WHEREAS
-qualitative data is wordy and more difficult to statistically summarise and therefore comparisons are hard to identify
weakness of qualitative data
-quantitative data lacks depth and meaning to behaviour
-especially when it is complex and prevents participants from being able to develop their thoughts on a given subject (context)
-therefore quantitative data may lack vital detail which reduces the internal validity of the data
WHEREAS
qualitative data is rich in detail which can provide a greater understanding of behaviour
qualitative data meaning
-data expressed in words
-may take form of a transcript of an interview or a diary entry
strength of qualitative data
-qualitative data provides rich details which allows ppts to develop their thoughts and feelings on a given subject
-this provides a greater understanding of the behaviour being studies (context)
WHEREAS
-quantitative data lacks depth and meaning as the data is only numerical
weakness of qualitative data
-harder to analyse as it is difficult to summarise to establish pattern trends
-this opens the data up to potential researcher bias as the analysis is based upon their own subjective interpretations of the data (context)
WHEREAS
-quantitative data can be analysed to provide patterns which may make it easier to make objective conclusions about behaviour
types of level of measurements
nominal
ordinal
interval
nominal data info
discrete data
data in categories
eg. hair colour
ordinal data info
discrete data
ordinal data is ranked
ordinal data does not have fixed intervals
based on subjective opinions
interval data info
data is continuous data
data is based on objective measures
based on numerical scale that have equal intervals
primary data definition
gathered first hand from the ppts
specific to the aim of the study
strength of primary data
- primary data is collected first hand from the ppts
-allows researcher to specifically target the info they require and organise an experiment in a way that suits them
strength of primary data
- primary data is collected first hand from the ppts
-allows researcher to specifically target the info they require and organise an experiment in a way that suits them (context)
-this increases the overall internal validity of the data
WHEREAS
secondary data might not meet the direct needs of the researcher suggesting it may be less useful
weakness of primary data
-primary data is conducted by the researcher themselves
-which involves time and effort to obtain the data as well as analyse the findings (context)
WHEREAS
secondary data is easily accessed and requires minimal effort to obtain reducing the time and cost taken to complete the research §6
what is meant by secondary data
-data that has previously been collected by a third party
-not specifically for the aim of the study
strength of secondary data
-can be easily accessed and requires minimal effort to obtain
-researcher might find that info she wants already exists (context)
-no need to collect primary data
WHEREAS
primary data is conducted by the researcher themselves which requires time and effort
weakness of secondary data
-secondary data may be poor quality
-may be out of date or incomplete and not met the direct needs of the researcher (context)
WHEREAS
primary data is collected first hand in ppts and specifically for the aim of the research which increases the overall internal validity of the research
what is meant by a meta-analysis
-form of research method that uses secondary data
-gains data from large number of studies which have investigated the same research
-combines the info to make conclusions about behaviour
strength of a meta analysis
gather data from a number of studies which allow us to view data with much more confidence and increase the generalizability of the findings across larger populations
weakness of a meta analysis
-prone to publication bias
-researcher may not select all the relevant studies
-choosing to leave those with negative/not significant results
-data will be biased because it only represents some of the relevant data
how to analyse qualitative data
content analysis
thematic analysis
what is content analysis
-analyse qualitative data by changing large qualitative data into quantitative
-done by identifying meaningful codes
-counted to present the data in a graph
when is it appropriate to use a content analysis
the data (context) being analysed is qualitative
what is meant by coding
initial process of content analysis where qualitative data us placed into meaningful categories
how is content analysis carried out
-read the transcript (context)
-identify codes and eg.(context)
-re-read the transcript (context)
-present the quantitative data in a graph
what is thematic analysis
-method of analysing qualitative data by identifying emergent themes
-enabling us to present the data in a qualitative format
how is thematic analysis carried out
-create a transcript (context)
-read and re-read the transcript for familiarisation
-combine the codes to create 3/4 themes that ae linked (context)
-present the data in a qualitative format
strength of analysis (content/thematic)
-easy to assess the reliability of the findings and conclusions
-researchers can access the materials and use the coding system
-to ensure the findings are consistent
weakness of analysis (content/thematic analysis)
researcher bias as the content confirms the researcher’s hypothesis is more likely to be identified and recorded
lowers the internal validity of the analysis
However
many modern (researchers) are aware of their own biases and often make reference to these in their own report
ways to assses reliability of content analysis
test re-test
inter-rater reliability
how to conduct test-retest
-research completes content analysis by creating a series of coding categories (context) and tallying every time it occurs in the qualitative data
-then the same researcher repeats the content analysis on the same qualitative data
-compare the results from each content analysis
-correlate the results from each content analysis using a stats test
-a strong positive correlation of above +0.8 shows high reliability
how to conduct inter-rater reliability
-the two raters would read through the qualitative data separately and create coding categories together (context)
-two raters read exactly the same content (context) but tally the occurrences separately
-they compare the tallies from both raters
-correlated using an appropriate stats test
-a strong positive correlation shows high reliability +0.8
definition of operationalisation
be specific and clear when defining coding categories to make the codes more measurable
how to assess the validity of content analysis
face validity
concurrent validity
face validity process
-independent psychologist in the same field seeing ig a coding category (context) is measuring what it claims to measure (context) at first value. If they say yes the content analysis is valid
concurrent validity process
-compare the result of a new content analysis (context) with the results from another similar pre-existing content analysis which has already been established
-if the results from both are similar then we can assume the test is valid
-correlation of two sets of results gained from an appropriate stats test should exceed +0.8
what is meant by measures of central tendency
any measure of the average value in a data set eg. mean
mode AO1
Most common number in a set of scores
Can be more than one mode of a data set
-Used for nominal data
mode advantages
-easy to calculate
-less prone to distortion by extreme values as it does not take all data in to account
UNLIKE
the mean which is highly influenced by extreme scores
mode disadvantages
-does not take account of all scores
-not useful if more than one mode
median ao1
-middle score in ordered scores
-ordinal data
median advantages
easy to calculate
not affected by extreme values
median disadvantages
not as sensitive as mean as does not use all scores
mean ao1
-all scores added up and divided by the total number of scores
-used for interval data
mean advantages
-most accurate and sensitive measure as uses all scores
mean disadvantages
affected by extreme scores as it takes into account all scores which can lead to misleading interpretation of results
what is meant by measures of dispersion
spread of scores
-eg. range or standard deviation
range ao1
spread of data from the smallest to the larges
-used for ordinal data
range advantages
easy and quick to calculate as it only uses 2 pieces of the data
-unlike SD which is more complicated
range disadvantages
-can be distorted by extreme scores
standard deviation ao1
-measure of spread around the mean
-higher the SD the more the data is spread around the mean
standard deviation advantages
-most precise measure of dispersion as uses all scores in calculation
-less easily distorted by extreme values
standard deviation disadvantages
more complicated and time consuming
what does the SD tell us
a high SD tells us more spread around the mean
scores are less consistent more variation
a low SD tells us less spread around the mean
scores are more consistent less variation
MUST MENTION WHAT IT SUGGESTS (context)
skewed distribution
positive skew- peak on the left
negative skew- peak on the right
features of a distribution -draw and label 3 distributions
-mode always highest point
-median in middle of mode and mean
-mean last
-positive skewed mean is on right
-negative skewed mean is on left
-never touches 0
bar charts ao1
-categorical/nominal data/discrete data
-categories appear as words
-categories on x axis
-frequency or amount on y axis
-bars NEVER TOUCH
histograms ao1
-continuous data
-represent frequencies
-scores are made within equal sized intervals
-frequency on y axis
-bars ALWAYS touch
scattergraph ao1
-used to display a relationship between two co-variables
-represent correlations
-each plot represents 1 ppts but two scores
-each variable on each axis
Draw the NO RIC! TABLE
NO RIC Students Come College When Miss Says Ric U Prick
writing frame eg. sign test
The appropriate stats test is (sign test)
This is because the study (context) is a test of difference between (context)
They used a repeated measures/matched pairs design because (context)
The level of measurement is nominal because (context) which is categorical
Writing frame if the results are significant
The critical value is (context) due to the P value being (context) for a (context)-tailed hypothesi where N=(context)
The calculated value (context) must be less/more than the Critical value of (context)
In this case the results are significant/not significant
We can accept/reject the null hypothesis and accept/null the alternative hypothesis
The researcher can be eg. 95% confident the results are significant/not significant (IV effects DV) and 5% confident the results are due to chance
How to calculate sign test
1.convert to nominal data eg. increase decrease or the same
2.add up the tally for each categories
3.take the number from the less frequent sign
4.ignore data if stays the same
5. calculate significance with sign test calc value and critical value
what is a type I error
-lenient P value
-researcher thinks results are sig when they are not
-wrongly accept the alt. and wrongly reject the null hypothesis
what is a type II error
-stringent P value
-researcher thinks results are not sig when they are sig
-wrongly accept the null and wrongly reject the alternative hypothesis
why do psychologist use 5% sig level
strikes a balance between the risk of making a type I and type II error
How to check for error
is it significant at original?
Go to more lenient/stringent P value
Is it still sig at that P value for one/two tailed hypothesis for N
Yes or No
write a consent form plan
-thank the ppts for considering to take part
-aim and an outline of the task
-how long it will take
-explain ethical issues which have been accounted for
-right to withdraw and confidentiality
-remind them they can ask any questions
-include space to sign to show consent
writing standardised instructions plan
-formal but polite
-you will be required to do thi…step by step
-how long they will take to complete the task
-what they should do when finished
-do they have any questions
writing a debrief plan
-thank the ppts for taking part
-include the aim
-explain why it was necessary to deceive them (if applicable)
-if independent groups design- ppts told the condition that they did not take part in
-explain relevant ethical issues which have been accounted for
-reassure them that their behaviour is normal
-offer aftercare if needed
-ask if they have any questions
5 sections of a psychological report
-abstract
-introduction
-method results
-discussion
-referencing
what is the purpose of an abstract
allow the reader an overview of the study to help them decide if they want to read on
what goes in an abstract
a summary that covers the aim,hypothesis,method,results and conclusion
150-350 word
what goes in an introduction
describe and link to previous research
how the current research will add to previous research
into ends with the aim and hypotheses of the research
what is the purpose of an introduction
gives background on relevant studies to explain how aims and hypotheses developed
what is the purpose of an method
detailed description of the study
detailed enough to be able to replicate the study
what is the acronym for what goes in a method
S ampling method
P rocedure
E quipment
E thics
D esign
what goes in a method section
Sampling method- how many and info on ppts eg.age
Procedure- exact order of events as standardised instruction
Equipment- details of any materials and apparatus used
Ethics- sig. ethical issues and how they were dealt with
Design- RM/IGD/MP and justify why used
what is the purpose of the results
present the overall summary of the findings instead of the raw data
what is the purpose of the results
present the overall summary of the findings instead of the raw data
what goes in the results section
-descriptive statistics: tables/graphs showing frequencies and measures of CT and dispersion
-inferential statistics: stats tests are reported and calculated values and sig levels
-qualitative data: categories and theme are described along with examples
what are descriptive statistics
tables/graphs showing frequencies and measures of CT and dispersion
what are inferential statistics
stats tests are reported and calculated values and sig levels detailed
what is the purpose of the discussion section
discuss the findings and suggest possible uses and future areas of research
what goes in the discussion section
-summary of the results
-compare with other results
-limitations and modifications
-implication and future research
what is the purpose of the reference section
to give details of any other articles/books tht are mentioned in the research
what is meant by a peer review
process by which psychological research papers are subjected to independent scrutiny before publication by other psychologists working in a similar field to consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality
what is the purpose of a peer review (1 mark)
a gatekeeper to filter out flawed or unscientific research
process of a peer review (6 marks)
-paper before publication is subjected to independent scrutiny by other researches in similar field to decide if it to be published
-considered in terms of its validity, significance, and originality
-assessment of appropriateness of methods and designs used
-researcher can accept,reject or improve the research
-review can be open, single blind and double blind
-editor of the journal will make the final decision based on the comments of the reviewer
what is the purpose of a peer review (4 marks)
-ensure quality and relevance of research
-showing the work to others increases the likeliness weaknesses will be addressed
-ensures published research can be taken seriously because it has been independently scrutinised by fellow researchers
-prevents spread of irrelevant findings and personal views
-determines whether research should receive funding
problems associated with a peer review (6 marks)
-fraud: in small cases it has failed to identify fraudulent research before publication
-anonymity: due to direct competition for limited research funding a minority of reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticizing rival reviewers
-bias: institution bias as there is a tendency to favour research which comes from prestigious universities or gender bias where there is a tendency to favour male research and bias towards positive findings
-values: impossible to separate personal,cultural and political views so if the research agrees with those views the research is more likely accepted to be objective
peer review - fraud
fraud: in small cases it has failed to identify fraudulent research before publication
peer review - anonymity
anonymity: due to direct competition for limited research funding a minority of reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticizing rival reviewers
peer review - bias
bias: institution bias as there is a tendency to favour research which comes from prestigious universities or gender bias where there is a tendency to favour male research and bias towards positive findings
peer review - values
values: impossible to separate personal,cultural and political views so if the research agrees with those views the research is more likely accepted to be objective
acronym for features of a science
THE PROF
features of a science key term: Theory construction
-theory is an expl. describing a phenomenon based on observations about the world
-theories help us understand the world around us
-allows us to make a prediction about behaviour and then create a hypothesis and test it empirically
-We can then use this to support/refine our original theory and progress through the scientific cycle of enquiry
features of a science key term: Hypothesis testing
-all hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable
features of a science key term: empirical methods
info is gained from direct observation or experiment rather than opinion
features of a science key term: paradigm
paradigm definition: Where scientific disciplines have a shared set of assumptions and methods
paradigm shift: = when there is a revolutionary change in scientific assumptions where the old paradigm is replaced with a new one eg. shift from behavioural psychology to cognitive psychology
features of a science key term: replicability
-repeat the research using standardised procedures to check for consistent results
-important to check if findings are externally valid
-helps generalise to the wider pop.
-increase confidence in results
features of a science key term: objectivity
-research is not affected by the expectations of the researcher
-using factual measurements to reduce subjectivity
features of a science key term: falsification
ability to prove a theory wrong
limitations of a feature of a science -objectivity
-limitation of conducting objective research when establishing psych as a science is that it can lead to a reductionist viewpoint
-problem as we are simplifying behaviour into basic units eg. simplifying OCD down to simple basic units such as mutated SERT gene
-which has been identified by objective methods such as gene mapping
-this neglects the holistic approach which will take into account a variety of factors to explain behaviour such as culture and socio economic background
-therefore when conducting objective research we fail to gain a full understanding of human behaviour in context
strength of a feature of a science -replicability
-a strength of using replicable research in psychology is that it can lead to practical applications
-if a researcher used replicable procedures eg. when Skinner investigated reinforcement with rats, the rats were placed in a controlled environment
-this means the research can be replicated under the same conditions which increase credibility of the research
-this can help help to develop practical applications such as token economy systems for people suffering with Schizophrenia to help manage their symptoms
-therefore showing features of a science is an important part of applied Psychology.
limitation of a feature of a science -falsifiability
-one limitation when considering if Psych follows all features of a science is that some theories cannot be falsified
-eg. freud in the psychodynamic approach created the idea of 5 psychosexual stages that children must progress through to have a ‘normal development
-however this theory cannot be falsified as there is no possible way to test if this idea is true or false due to the unscientific nature of studying the unconscious
-therefore not all areas of Psychology can be considered a science due to their unscientific methods, lowering the credibility of Psychology as a science
mental health and the economy AO1
-absence from work costs the economy over £15 billion a year
-1/3 of absences are due to mild/moderate mental health conditions eg.stress / depression
-psychological research into effective treatments can have a huge benefit for the economy
-eg. research has found combining drug therapy with CBT is more effective for treating depression than drug therapy alone
mental health and the economy AO3
-Using a combination of therapies can then mean individuals can manage their condition effectively and return to work = saving the economy money.
-This will long-term reduce the strain on the NHS as less individuals will be admitted for treatment, if the combined treatment is successful
-However combined treatment is more expensive reducing the financial benefit for the economy – especially if a large number of people are needing treatment.
attachment research and the economy AO1
-Research into multiple attachments has shifted the importance of the mother on child development and development to more shared parenting, -increasing the importance and involvement of the father in interactions
-Research has found both parents are equally capable of providing the emotional support necessary for a child to have healthy psychological development
attachment research and the economy AO3
-This has affected the economy in a number of ways:
-Fathers are now entitled to shared paternity leave which costs the economy as it is government funded
-Also costs employers as they may have to hire someone else to take on that workload whist the father is on leave
-However, due to flexible working hours within the family it is the norm in lots of household that both parents earn money and maximise their income to contribute to the economy by working and paying taxes
social influence research and the economy AO1
-Research into how people conform can be used to influence the economy.
-For example ISI research has found that indiv. have the desire to be right and therefore, presenting the information behind hotel guests towel washing and the water waste = significantly reduced the hotel guests towel consumption
social influence research and the economy AO3
-This can benefit the economy as it can change individual’s behaviour such as excess water use
-this benefits the environment, which in turn benefits the economy because less money will be used to protect the environment from excess water use
Eyewitness testimony research and the economy AO1
-Research into the influence of leading questions on eyewitness testimony has an influence upon the economy.
-Loftus and Palmer found that leading questions can alter someone’s perception of an event, this lead to the development of the cognitive interview which does not use leading questions and has been found to improve the accuracy of an individual’s eyewitness testimony.
Eyewitness testimony research and the economy AO3
-This can benefit the economy because it means the police will spend less resources looking for the wrong suspects as EWT should be more accurate.
-Also means that it will increase the likelihood of the correct person being convicted of the crime, therefore, not wasting the economy’s money on inaccurate convictions.
