Research Methods: Scientific Processes

Question 1

what is an aim?

Answer 1

Aim is the general statement that describes the purpose the experiment.

Question 2

What is an hypothesis?

Answer 2

Hypothesis is a testable statement which predicts the outcome of a study.

Question 3

What are the two types of hypothesis?

Answer 3

Directional(aka one tailed hypothesis), and non directional(aka one tailed hypothesis)

Question 4

what is a directional hypothesis?

Answer 4

Directional Hypothesis:
States the expected direction of the effect (e.g., one will be higher or better).
Example: “More sleep will lead to better exam performance.”

Non-Directional Hypothesis:
States that a relationship exists, but does not specify the direction of the effect.
Example: “There will be a relationship between sleep and exam performance.”

Question 5

what is null hypothesis?

Answer 5

Null Hypothesis
States that there is no effect or relationship between the variables being studied.
It assumes that any observed differences are due to chance or random variation.
Example: “There is no relationship between sleep and exam performance.”

Question 6

what are IV,DV and control group.

Answer 6

Independent Variable (IV):
The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to see its effect on the dependent variable.
Example: Amount of sleep (since the researcher can change this).

Dependent Variable (DV):
The variable that is measured to see if it changes in response to the IV.
Example: Exam performance (since this is what you’re measuring).

Control Variables:
Variables that are kept constant throughout the experiment to ensure that they do not affect the DV.
Example: Age of participants, time of day for testing (anything that could influence the results if not controlled).

Question 7

What is operationalisation?

Answer 7

The process of defining a variable so that it can be measured or tested in a study.
It turns abstract concepts into specific, measurable terms.
Example:
Abstract variable: “Aggression”
Operationalized variable: “Aggression is measured by the number of times a participant hits a punching bag in 5 minutes.”

Question 8

what is the difference between internal and external validity?

Answer 8

• External validity refers to how generalisable the results are to other settings, people, or times.
  (does it lack realism?)
• Internal validity refers to whether the experiment measures what it intends to and whether the results are due to the manipulation of the IV, not other factors.

Question 9

what is a lab experiment?
- state strength and weakness

Answer 9

an experiment conducted in a room/lab where the variables are well controlled by the researcher. (eg. conducted in a classroom where room temp and noise levels are manipulated)

strengths
High internal validity due to control over extraneous and confounding variables, which helps establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and DV.
High control allows for a standardized procedure, making the study replicable.

weakness
-May lack ecological validity due to the artificial research setting, which doesn’t reflect real-life environments.
Participants’ awareness of being in an experiment could lead to demand characteristics, affecting the results.

Question 10

What is a field experiment?
- List strength and weakness

Answer 10

an experiment conducted in a natural, everyday setting, but the researcher is still manipulating the IV.(eg. A researcher drops a wallet in a public park (with or without money) and observes how many people try to return it. Participants are unaware of the experiment)

strengths
-High mundane realism and ecological validity because the study is conducted in a natural environment.
Less likely to have demand characteristics since participants may not be aware they are part of an experiment.

weakness
- The loss of control over CVs and EVs.

• Potential ethical issues when participants are unaware of the fact that they are participating in an experiment e.g. Bickman et al. (1974)

Question 11

what is a natural experiment?

Answer 11

A natural experiment is when researchers study the effects of a naturally occurring event, like a natural disaster, on behaviour, without controlling the independent variable.

strength
- Natural experiments are useful when manipulating the IV is not possible due to practical or ethical reasons, e.g., studying the impact of childhood experiences on personality.
-They have high external validity because they focus on real-world issues.

weakness
Naturally occurring events, like natural disasters, can be rare, making it hard to generalize to other situations.
It can be difficult to establish causation between variables when the IV cannot be manipulated, e.g., determining if a natural disaster impacts later behaviour.

Question 12

What is a Quasi Experiment?
- list strength and weakness

Answer 12

A quasi-experiment is a study where the independent variable (IV) is not manipulated by the researcher but is pre-existing, such as age, gender, or a specific condition.

strengths
- Quasi-experiments are often conducted in controlled conditions, sharing strengths with lab experiments, like the ability to replicate the study.

weakness
- Difficult to infer causation since the IV cannot be manipulated.
Lack of random allocation may lead to confounding variables influencing the results.

Question 13

What is an experimental design?

Answer 13

It refers to the way in which participants are arranged in experiments, or how the experiment should be carried out.

There are three experimental designs:
- independent groups
- repeated measures
- matched pairs

Question 14

What is an independent group?
- List strengths and weaknesses

Answer 14

a type of experimental design where different participants are used in each condition of the experiment. (Participants are randomly allocated to different conditions (e.g., experimental group vs. control group)

Strengths
-No order effects: Since participants only take part in one condition, there are no issues like fatigue or practice effects that could affect the results.
-Lower demand characteristics: Participants are less likely to guess the aim of the study, reducing the risk of altered behavior.
Weakness
- there could be confounding Vs and Extraneous variables affecting the results in the two conditions, as there could be individual differences between participants.
- can be time and money consuming

Question 15

What is repeated measure?
-list strengths and weaknesses

Answer 15

A research design where the same participants are used in all conditions of an experiment.

Strengths
- individual differences are controlled
- fewer participants needed
Weakness
-order effect might take place: CVs/EVs can occur when the same group of participants participate in two conditions eg. Fatigue, better performance in second condition.
- this can be prevented by counterbalancing: half group do condition A then B; other half do B then A
- Demand characteristics

Question 16

What is matched pairs?
-List strengths and weaknesses

Answer 16

A experimental design where participants are paired based on similar characteristics, and each member of the pair is assigned to a different condition of the experiment. (This is so the control and experimental group can be similar)

Strengths
- better than independent groups in controlling participant variables and minimizing individual differences.
Weakness
- Time consuming and expensive
- Extremely difficult to fully eliminate individual differences

Question 17

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 17

Extraneous variables are any variables, other than the independent variable, that could affect the dependent variable and should be controlled to ensure the results are due to the independent variable.
Example: In a study on exercise and memory, extraneous variables could include age, sleep, or stress levels.

Question 18

What are confounding variables?

Answer 18

A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that not only affects the dependent variable, but is also related to the independent variable. This affects the relationship between the IV and DV making it difficult to establish the cause and effect.

E.g. Study time in a study on sleep and exam performance.

Question 19

What are participant and situational variables?

Answer 19

Participant variables = individual differences between participants that could affect the DV (eg. Age, gender, personality)
Situational Variable= features of the situation that could affect the DV
(eg. Time of day, weather, motivation)

Question 20

What is standardisation?

Answer 20

Standardisation helps control extraneous variables by ensuring all participants experience the same conditions, reducing external influences on the results.

Question 21

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 21

This is when participants may sometimes work out what the experiment is, and then act accordingly.

Either:
- pleasing the researcher (please you affect)
or
- not cooperating (screw you affect)

Question 22

What is social desirability?

Answer 22

Social desirability is when participants answer questions in a way they think will be viewed positively, leading to biased results.

Example: In a study about smoking habits, participants may underreport how much they smoke to appear healthier or avoid judgment.

Question 23

What are investigator effect?
- state and explain the three types

Answer 23

Investigator effects are when the researcher’s expectations or behavior influence the participants’ responses or study outcome.

Expectancy effect: one’s behavior is affected by how they expect the outcome will be
(e.g. A researcher smiles when a participant gives a desired answer, making them more likely to repeat it.)
Unconscious bias: subjective decisions and judgements made by the investigator
(e.g. A researcher unintentionally favors participants of a certain gender when analyzing data.)
Leading questions: asking questions that guide participants to answer in a specific way
(e.g. “Don’t you think this product is great?” (Suggests the answer the researcher wants).

Question 24

How do you minimize investigator effects?

Answer 24

Randomisation = the use of chance methods to reduce unconscious bias
(eg. I’m Asch study the trail in which participants give the incorrect answers is random)

Question 25

what is random sampling?
-list strengths and weaknesses

Answer 25

a sophisticated form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
strengths:
- potentially unbiased
- confounding and extraneous variables are equally divided between groups to increase validity.
weaknesses
- may obtain a sample that is biased (unrepresentative)
-time consuming

Question 26

what is systematic sampling?
-list strengths and weaknesses

Answer 26

when every nth member of the target population is selected. (e.g. every 3rd house on a street)
strengths
- objective
- no researcher bias
weaknesses
- time consuming
- participants may refuse to take part making it a volunteer sample

Question 27

what is stratified sampling?
-list strengths and weaknesses

Answer 27

when the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of ppl in certain subgroups within the population.
strengths
-generalisable/representative
weaknesses
- cannot be fully generalisable as it cannot represent all ways ppl are different
- time consuming

Question 28

what is opportunity sample?
-list strengths and weaknesses

Answer 28

when researchers select anyone who is willing and available to represent the target population.
strengths
- less costly
- unrepresentative of target pop
weaknesses
- potential research bias as they have control over whole sample.

Question 29

what is a volunteer sample?
-list strengths and weaknesses

Answer 29

when the participants select themselves to be part of the sample.
strengths
- minimal input
- participants are more engaged
weaknesses
- volunteer bias as it may attract a certain profile reducing generalisability

Question 30

what is the BPS code of conduct?

Answer 30

• the ethical guidlines researchers have to observe when conducting research
• implemented by eth8ics commitees

Question 31

List all the ethical issues in psychological research and explain how to deal with them

Answer 31

Informed consent
-participants should be given a consent form including all the details of the study that may affect their decision to participate; children under 16 need their guardians to sign on their behalf.

Deception
- participants need a full debrief at the end of the study and make them aware of the true aims of the study; also should be given the right to withdraw.

protection from harm
- counselling provided if necessary
-participants need a full debrief at the end of the study and make them aware of the true aims of the study; also should be given the right to withdraw.

privacy/confidentiality
- protect any persona; details collected
- maintain anonymity by using numbers when referring to participants.