research methods - Science

Question 1

What are positivists?

Answer 1

• they believe it is possible to apply the logic and methods of natural sciences to the study of society.
• this gives us true, objective knowledge to solve social problems.

Question 2

Patterns, laws & inductive reasoning

Answer 2

• reality is patterned and we can observe these patterns. Science should observe, identify, measure and record these patterns through lab experiments.
• sociologists can discover laws that determine how society works and it is known as inductive reasoning.
• it involves accumulating data about the world through observation and measurement. As knowledge grows we can see general patterns.

Question 3

Verificationism

Answer 3

• verificationism is verifying a theory and proving it is true.
• positivists believe the patterns we observe can be explained by finding the facts that cause them. E.g. educational failure can be explained by another social fact such as material deprivation.
• positivists favour macro approaches because they see structures as social facts that exist outside of us and shape our behaviour patterns.

Question 4

Objective quantitative research

Answer 4

• sociology should take an experimental method as the model for research because hypotheses can be tested in a controlled way.
• posivists like quantitative data to measure patterns of behaviour and then produce precise statements about the relationship of variables.
• they believe researchers should be detached and objective.

Question 5

What are interpretivists?

Answer 5

• they reject the scientific approach as it is unsuited for the study of human beings.
• the subject matter in sociology is meaningful social action, and we must interpret to understand.

Question 6

Why do interpretivist believe sociology is not a science?

Answer 6

• science only deals with cause and effect, not human meanings, which causes them to reject the use of natural science methods.
• Natural science studies unconsciousness.
• sociology studies people who have consciousness and attach meanings to their actions.

Question 7

Verstehen and qualitative research

Answer 7

• WEBER refers to verstehen as putting ourselves in the place of the actor to understand meanings.
• this means interpretivits favour qualitative methods which produce rich, personal data that is high in validity.

Question 8

POPPER
The fallacy of induction

Answer 8

• POPPER rejects the view that inductive reasoning and verificationism are distinctive features of science. This is because of the fallacy of inducation.
• he uses swans as an example. Observing a large number of swans that are white we can make the generalisation that all swans are white. It’s easy to make further observations and verify this as there are many more white swans. However a single observation of a black Swan will destroy the theory.
• this shows we can never prove a theory true by producing more observations to verify it.

Question 9

POPPER
Falsification

Answer 9

• what makes a science unique is falsificationsim. (Opposite to verificationsim)
• a scientific statement can be falsified - proven wrong by evidence.
• POPPER believe a good theory is:
  -falsifiable in principle but stands up to attempts of disproval
  -highly generalisbale

Question 10

POPPER
Criticism and the open society

Answer 10

• POPPER believes science is a public activity because it is falsifibale and open to criticism.
• science thrives in open societies (ones that belive in free expression).
• closed societies are dominated by an official belief system that claims to have the absolute truth. E.g Marxism.

Question 11

POPPER
Implications for sociology

Answer 11

• sociology is unscientific because it consists of theories that cannot be put to the test with the possibility that they will be falsified. E.g Marxism predicts there will be a revolution for a classless society that hasn’t happened due to false consciousness. Can’t be falsified.

> However, sociology can be scientific because it creates hypotheses.

Question 12

KUHN
The paradigm

Answer 12

• a paradigm is shared by members of a scientific community and defines what their science is.
• it gives a framework for assumptions, principles, methods, and techniques that members of the community work.
  Scientists accept the paradigm uncritically
• KUHN believes a science can not exist without a shared paradigm.

Question 13

KUHN
Normal science

Answer 13

• in normal science a paradigm goes unquestioned. Scientists engage in puzzle solving, which is where scientists work out the neatest solution.
• it’s like a jigsaw puzzle. We know what the picture looks like and we have to figure out the pieces to get the right result.
• KUHN believes in normal science the paradigm allows scientists to agree on basic principles of the subject.

Question 14

KUHN
Scientific revolutions

Answer 14

• sometimes, scientists’ findings are contrary to the paradigm. As anomalies build up confidence I the paradigm declines.
• science is now in crisis.
• scientists formulate rival paradigms which marks the start of a scientific revolution.
• eventually one paradigm becomes accepted by the s identification community which allows normal science to continue.

Question 15

KUHN
implications for sociology

Answer 15

• There is no shared paradigm in sociology as there are many perspectives. There is no agreement on methods and fundamentals.
• KUHN believes sociology can only be scientific if basic disagreements were resolved.

Question 16

KEAT AND URRY
realism science

Answer 16

• Realists KEAT & URRY stress the similarities of sociology and certain natural sciences in terms of control the researcher has over variables.
• they distinguish between open systems and closed systems.
  >closed systems are where the researcher can control and measure all variables and make precise predictions. this would use lab experiments.
  >open systems are where the researcher cannot control and measure all relevant variables and cant make precise predictions. e.g a meteorologist cant make 100% accurate predictions on weather.
• realists argue that sociologists study open systems where processes are too complex to make exact predictions.

Question 17

underlying structures

Answer 17

• KEAT & URRY argue that science often assumes the existence of unobservable structures. e.g. physics and black hole.
• realists believe both natural and social science attempts to explain the causes of events in terms of underlying structures and processes. the structures are unobservable but we work out they exist by their effects.