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Research Methods - Paper 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are order effects?

A

Variables such as fatigue or practice effects, which affect the study if things are done in the same order.
Participants may become bored/tired of the study or may have done the same activity multiple times and may improve or discover the aim which will affect the findings.

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2
Q

What is meant by Randomisation?

A

Making as many things within the research design and procedure as random as possible to reduce investigator effects/biases.

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3
Q

What is meant by demand characteristics?

A

Participants not behaving naturally. Instead they behave according to or against the aim.

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4
Q

What is a standardised procedure?

A

A procedure that is carried out in a set way that is the same for everybody.
e.g. every participant looks at the list of words for a minute.

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5
Q

What are participant variables?

A

They are related to individual characteristics of each participant that may have an impact.
e.g. mood, anxiety, awareness

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6
Q

What is meant by operationalising?

A

The process of making something measurable.

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7
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The variable you are measuring.

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8
Q

What is a double blind experiment?

A

When the experimenter does not know the aims of the experiment and therefore can’t have any influence.

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9
Q

What are situational variables?

A

Something to do with what is happening.
e.g. time of day experiment is done

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10
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

The variable you change/manipulate.

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11
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Variables in the environment that have the potential to affect the findings of your study.
e.g. noise in room

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12
Q

What are experimenter effects?

A

When the experimenter being present affects the findings of the study.
e.g. the tone of voice when giving instructions may indicate the answers needed

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13
Q

What is meant by subjectivity?

A

When analysing data that involves words there can be interpretation bias as you have to interpret what is being said in the data, which will be different for everyone.

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14
Q

What is meant by experimental design and what are the three types?

A

The allocation of participants for your study, whether you have one or more groups.
1) Repeated measures
2) Independent groups
3) Matched pairs design

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15
Q

What is meant by repeated measures design?

A

There is one group doing all conditions.

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16
Q

What is meant by independent groups design?

A

There are two separate groups in different experimental conditions.

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17
Q

What is meant by matched pairs design?

A

There are two groups, but the groups are matched for something similar
e.g. age, personality

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18
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

How close the scores are around the mean.

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19
Q

What does a small standard deviation show?

A

Scores are clustered closely around the mean.

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20
Q

What does a large standard deviation show?

A

Scores are spread out.

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21
Q

What is a sample?

A

Who the participants are for the study.
e.g. age, race, background

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22
Q

What is meant by a research method?

A

The main way the data is collected in a study, such as using an experiment, a case study or a questionnaire.

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23
Q

What is meant by predictive validity?

A

To which the measure being used will allow you to predict future behaviours that this measure should be able to predict..
e.g. when a student has good GCSE grades, we can predict that they will achieve good A-level grades.

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24
Q

What is meant by good predictive validity?

A

The data collected can be used to predict future behaviours.

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25
Q

What is meant by objectivity?

A

When analysing data there is no interpretation bias.
This is the case when analysing quantitative data as they are factual findings.

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26
Q

What are the measures of central tendency?

A

The mean, median and mode of a set of scores.

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27
Q

What is meant by measures of dispersion?

A

Range and Standard deviation

How widely spread a set of scores are from the measures of central tendency.

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28
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A prediction of what you think is going to happen in the results.

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29
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Variables that do affect the findings of your study.
e.g. noise affecting your memory experiment

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30
Q

What is meant by generalisibility?

A

Whether or not the sample is representative to the whole or target population.
Does it represent a variety of people?
How big is the sample?
Is the sampling technique creating a bias sample?

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31
Q

What are ethics?

A

A set of guidelines psychologists have to follow to make sure participants are not harmed mentally or physically in the study.

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32
Q

What is meant by internal validity?

A

Whether or not you are measuring what you claim to measure.
Involves isolating the variables to make sure the IV is affecting the DV so cause and effect can be established.
Ensuring results aren’t affected by extraneous variables.

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33
Q

What is meant by ecological validity?

A

Whether or not the data represents a natural setting, if yes then it has high ecological validity.
Can the results be used to predict things about the participants future behaviour?

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34
Q

What is meant by application to real life?

A

Whether or not the data/findings can be usefully applied to support a theory or to explain a real like phenomena or to improve quality of life or outcomes for society.

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35
Q

What is meant by reliability?

A

Whether or not the theory/study can be tested again and get the same results. If yes, it can be tested for reliability.

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36
Q

What is meant by inter-rater reliability?

A

Whether or not there are multiple observers/researchers agreeing on behaviour.

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37
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

A study taking place in an artificial setting, using artificial tasks.
Very tight control over variables
Collect quantitative data

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38
Q

What is an aim?

A

The purpose of the study.
It can be considered unethical to not tell participants your full aim.

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39
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

An experiment conducted in a special environment in where variables can be carefully controlled.
Most common in natural sciences.
Aim to establish cause and effect.
IV must effect DV.
Allows for future predictions.

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40
Q

What is an advantage of a lab experiment?

A

High reliability as extraneous variables can be controlled tightly and procedures are standardised.
High internal validity as there are no extraneous variables and there is lots of control.

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41
Q

What is a limitation of a lab experiment?

A

Low ecological validity as it can be too controlled. (not real life setting)

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42
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

Similar to lab experiments, but conducted in a more real life setting
e.g. public transport
Aim is to establish a cause and effect relationship between IV and DV in a real life setting.
Participants are usually not aware they’re in the experiment.

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43
Q

What is an advantage of a field experiment?

A

High ecological validity as setting is more realistic and applicable and participants are in their normal environment, therefore behaviour is more realistic.

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44
Q

What is a limitation of a field experiment?

A

Low internal validity as there is less control than lab experiments.
Extraneous variables are more likely to distort findings.
Harder to establish cause and effect relationship.

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45
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

Participants are in their natural everyday environment.
Experimenter has no control over variables.

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46
Q

What is an advantage of a natural experiment?

A

Highest ecological validity due to lack of involvement of researcher.
Findings can be easily generalised to other real life settings.

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47
Q

What is a limitation of a natural experiment?

A

Experimenter has no control control over variables.
Low reliability as some events are rare and may only occur once.
Ethical issue that participants aren’t aware they are involved.
Low internal validity as little control over variables and can’t be sure of cause and effect.

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48
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

When the researcher is interested in an independent variable that is naturally occurring and cannot be manipulated.
e.g. gender, age phobias
DV is measured in lab

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49
Q

What is an advantage of a quasi experiment?

A

High internal validity as can be in controlled conditions, control over extraneous variables.
Allows for cause and effect between IV and DV.
Reliability as there is high control and instructions and procedures are precise.

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50
Q

What is a limitation of a quasi experiment?

A

No way to show casual relationship as there could be extraneous variables, therefore cannot show a casual relationship as there is no direct manipulation of IV. The IV is naturally occurring.

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51
Q

What is a strength of independent group designs?

A

Order effects aren’t a problem, participants are less likely to guess the aim.
Reduced chance of demand characteristics.

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52
Q

What are limitations of independent group designs?

A

Individual differences
e.g. some people may all have good memory
Economically lower as have to use 2x more participants than repeated measures design.

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53
Q

How can we deal with individual differences during independent group designs?

A

Make groups as random as possible.

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54
Q

What are strengths of repeated measure design?

A

Individual differences are not an issue.
Economically better as fewer participants are needed.

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55
Q

What is a limitation of repeated measure design?

A

Order effects
Participants can find out aim through tasks
Effect of first conditions can last through second e.g. eating chocolate to improve memory

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56
Q

How can we deal with the limitations of repeated measures design?

A

Counterbalancing:
-Split participants
-Half complete A first and half complete B first
-Data will average itself out controlling for practice and fatigue

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57
Q

What are the strengths of matched pairs design?

A

No order effects as not repeating conditions
Extraneous variables are more controlled because people are paired before joining one condition

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58
Q

What is a limitation of matched pairs design?

A

No two people will be the same, can’t match exactly
Time consuming
Expensive

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59
Q

How can we deal with the limitations of matched pairs design?

A

Prioritise important variables to control e.g. not having participants with brain damage for testing memory

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60
Q

What are the 5 ways we can present quantitative data?

A

Bar chart
Histogram
Line graph
Tables
Scattergram

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61
Q

What do tables consist of?

A

Raw data that hasn’t been statistically analysed.
Can have measures of central tendencies and dispersion.

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62
Q

What does a bar chart consist of?

A

Represents discrete data, it has frequencies of each item.
It can show percentages, 2 values together

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63
Q

What does a histogram consist of?

A

Continuous data

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64
Q

What does a line graph consist of?

A

Continuous data
Can compare 2 or more frequencies

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65
Q

When is a scatter graph used?

A

When conduction a correlation analysis.

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66
Q

What is a correlation?

A

Illustrates the strength and direction of an association between two or more co-variables.

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67
Q

What does a positive correlation mean?

A

When one co-variable increases, so does the other.
e.g. the number of people in a room and noise tend to be positively correlated

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68
Q

What does a negative correlation mean?

A

As one co-variable increases, the other decreases.

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69
Q

What does a zero correlation mean?

A

There is no relationship between the two variables.

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70
Q

What is the difference between an experiment and a correlation?

A

In an experiment the researcher controls or manipulates the IV in order to measure the effect on the DV. As a result of this deliberate change in one variable it is possible to infer that the IV caused any observed changes in the DV.

For a correlation there is no manipulation of one variable and therefore it isn’t possible to establish a cause and effect relationship between one co-variable and another.

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71
Q

What are the strengths of correlation?

A

Useful preliminary tool for research
Provides a precise, quantifiable measure of how two variables are related
Relatively quick and economical to carry out

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72
Q

What are weaknesses of correlation?

A

Can only tell us how variables are related, but not why.
Can be occasionally misued

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73
Q

What is a correlational hypothesis?

A

There is no IV or DV
Hypothesis has to state expected relationship between variables, but co-variables which must be operationalised
Can be directional or non-directional

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74
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

No relationship between variables.

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75
Q

What is a directional hypotheses?

A

A one tailed hypotheses

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76
Q

What is a non-directional hypotheses?

A

A two tailed hypotheses.

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77
Q

What is a natural observation?

A

Watching behaviour in the participants natural setting.

Most observations are natural because natural behaviour is what is required.
No manipulation by researcher and nothing is set up.
They can collect qualitative data or quantitative data

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78
Q

What are strengths of a natural observation?

A

Have higher ecological validity as setting is natural
Collect rich and in depth data, increases validity

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79
Q

What are weaknesses of a natural observation?

A

Difficult to test for reliability because they have no controls
If data collected is qualitative then there may be interpretation bias of the findings

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80
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Watching behaviour in a controlled and artificial way e.g. using a one way mirror

Situation can be repeated, no manipulation of IV
There is manipulation of setting and situation
Can collect qualitative and quantitative data

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81
Q

What are strengths of a structured observation?

A

Better reliability as it is controlled

Situation can be recorded to refer back to, increases reliability

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82
Q

What are weaknesses of a controlled observation?

A

Low ecological validity, unnatural setting and doesn’t represent real behaviour
Qualitative data may involve interpretation bias, subjective

83
Q

What is a covert (closed) observation?

A

Watching behaviour when the observer is kept a secret from the participants.

Can collect qualitative and quantitative data

84
Q

What are strengths of a covert observation?

A

More likely to display more natural behaviour, lessens chance of demand characteristics
Higher validity as more natural behaviour is displayed

85
Q

What are weaknesses of a covert observation?

A

Usually unethical as can’t get informed consent, debrief participants or give them the right to withdraw

Observer may miss information due to their positioning and trying to remain hidden

If qualitative data then interpretation bias can occur, subjective

86
Q

What is an overt (open) observation?

A

Watching behaviour when participants know that they are being watched and possible why.

Can collect qualitative and quantitative data

87
Q

What are strengths of an overt observation?

A

Ethical observations as they can get informed consent, debrief participants and they can withdraw at any time as they are aware that they are being watched

High ecological validity as they are usually carried out in a natural setting

88
Q

What are weaknesses of an overt observation?

A

Could lead to unnatural behaviour because participants know they are being watched, low validity

Demand characteristics may be an issue

May be interpretation bias if qualitative data is collected

89
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

Watching behaviour where the observer is a participant in the study. They are involved in the activity as well as observing behaviour.

They may use a secret camera to record the situation as they are taking part in the study

Can collect qualitative and quantitative data as they watch back recording

90
Q

What are strengths of a participant observation?

A

High validity as it is a first hand experience of the situation which would give a rich account of the study

Participants are unaware they’re being watched so behaviour would be natural, which gives the observation high ecological validity.

91
Q

What are weaknesses of a participant observation?

A

Collecting qualitative data may involve interpretation bias in gathering and analysing as it is subjective

Observer can be noticeable, behaviour may change, may affect validity as it is not measuring real behaviour

92
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

Watching behaviour when the observer is not part of the situation.

They sit away from the activity and record behaviour.

Can collect quantitative and qualitative data.

93
Q

What are strengths of non participant observations?

A

They can be objective as observer can stand back and not get involved. Opinions likely to be neutral

Can record data much easier compared to participant observation as not involved in situation.

94
Q

What are weaknesses of non participant observations?

A

May involve interpretation bias in gathering and analysing findings. Subjective

Observer can be noticeable therefore behaviour may change as participants know they are being observed. This can affect validity as not measuring real behaviour.

95
Q

What are the aims of peer reviewing?

A

To allocating research funding

To validate the quality and relevance

To suggest amendments or improvements

96
Q

Describe the peer review aim of ‘to allocate research funding’.

A

Decides whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project

May be coordinated by government-run funding organisations such as the medical research council

97
Q

Describe the peer review aim of ‘to validate the quality and relevance of research’.

A

All elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy:
1. Formulation of hypotheses
2. Methodology chosen
3. Statistical tests used
4. Conclusions drawn

98
Q

Describe the peer review aim of ‘to suggest amendments or improvements’.

A

Reviewers may suggest minor revisions of the work and improve the report.
In extreme circumstances they may decide that the work is inappropriate and should be withdrawn.

99
Q

What are the 3 evaluation points of peer review?

A

Anonymity

Publication Bias

Burying groundbreaking research

100
Q

Describe the peer review evaluation point of anonymity.

A

Usually the peer reviewing remains anonymous so it is likely to be more honest.

Anonymity can be used to criticise rivals. Many researchers are in direct competition for limited research funding. For this reason, some journals favour a system where reviewer’s names are public.

101
Q

Describe the peer review evaluation point of ‘publication bias’.

A

Natural tendency for editors to want to publish headline grabbing findings to increase credibility and circulation of their publication.

They prefer to publish positive results which could mean some research that doesn’t meet the criteria is disregarded. This creates a false impression of current state of psychology if editors are selective.

102
Q

Describe the peer review evaluation point of burying groundbreaking research.

A

Peer review process may suppress opposition to mainstream theories to maintain status quo.

Reviewers may be critical of research that opposes their perspective.

Established scientists are more likely to be chosen as reviewers, particularly by prestigious journals and publishes therefore new findings are less likely to be passed than current findings.

103
Q

How could research into eye witness testimony have implications for the economy?

A

Improving EWR can lead to more accurate eye witnesses and therefore money saved in police resources, because they will be looking for the correct people/person.

104
Q

What will happen if the cognitive interview is developed?

A

If the cognitive interview is more effective than the standard police interview then time and therefore money could be saved by doing more effective interviews.

105
Q

How could understanding minority influence lead to implications for the economy?

A

Minorities can advocate change that will benefit the economy. By understanding how a minority can bring about change minorities can be encouraged to make changes that will save more money

e.g. environmentalists and recycling saved money by recycled goods rather than buying something new

106
Q

Bowlby’s view that children need their mothers led to women feeling like they needed to stay at home. What effect could this have on the economy?

A

If mothers are staying at home then they aren’t working and contributing to taxes etc

107
Q

Later research showed that actually children are generally fine as long as they have a good substitute carer. What could this mean for the economy?

A

It could mean that mothers are able to work and therefore they are adding to the economy through taxes. Also if they are working it aids the businesses by having a workforce.

108
Q

How could research into “smart machines” affect the economy?

A

It could lead to saving money for businesses as they have machines to do jobs to save money

e.g. CCTV facial recognition

109
Q

What are the types of review process?

A

Single Blind Review

Double Blind Review

Open review

110
Q

What is a single blind review?

A

Reviewer is anonymous and can intentionally be harsh

111
Q

What is a double blind review?

A

Researcher and reviewers are anonymous

Researcher can still be identified by style of writing.

112
Q

What is an open review?

A

No identity is hidden

Biased viewpoints

113
Q

What are inferential statistics?

A

Used to test probability that results were not due to chance.

114
Q

What is meant by significance?

A

In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

115
Q

What is a probability level used for?

A

Helps to see the size of ‘chance’ that may affect the results.

116
Q

What is the accepted level of probability in psychology?

A

5% (0.05)

Even if we find a significant difference or relationship within the data, there is still up to 5% probability that it could have occurred by chance.

In some cases the researcher needs to be more confident in their experiment/results so probability should be less than or equal to 1% (0.01)

117
Q

What is the sign test?

A

A simple stats test to help us determine whether a difference we have found is significant.

118
Q

What must you do to use the sign test?

A
  1. Look for a difference rather than an association
  2. Must have used repeated measures design
  3. Must be using nominal data (data organised categorically)
119
Q

What is the critical value?

A

Value to be achieved for significance found in the table of critical values, we need to know N (the number of participants) the probability (5%) and whether the test is one tailed or two tailed.

120
Q

What is the sign test calculated value (s)?

A

For the sign test, the calculated value (s) has to be equal to or lower than the critical value to be significant.

If this is the case we can accept our experimental hypotheses.
If not, we need to accept our null hypotheses.

121
Q

What is meant by inter - rater reliability?

A

The agreement between others on the recording of an event.

122
Q

What are general observations?

A

Behaviour is being watched by an observer in a controlled or natural setting. Behaviour is spontaneously occurring and is not set up or manipulated in any way.

123
Q

What are the two ways you can record data?

A

Tallying behaviour - quantitate data
Writing down quotes or telling the story of what is happening - qualitative data

124
Q

How can data be controlled?

A

By using event sampling:
Drawing up a list of behavioural categories and tallying every time each of the behaviours occurs in a specific amount of time

By using time sampling:
Counting behaviours at regular intervals such as every 5 seconds or 8 minutes
Or they may take different samples throughout the day or month

125
Q

What should behavioural categories be?

A

Objective - recording behaviour through clear actions

Cover - cover all behaviour possibilities

Mutually exclusive- only one record one category at a time

126
Q

What is a likert scale?

A

A 5 point scale used to assess attitudes and views.
e.g.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor disagree
Agree Strongly Agree

127
Q

What are case studies?

A

In depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community.

128
Q

Describe what cases studies are

A

They allow a researcher to investigate a topic in more detail.

Involve a detailed study on one person or a small group

Collects qualitative data because notes are written about the patient on their behaviour, actions and abilities which produces rich and in depth data

Can also collect quantitative data when given a task to complete

129
Q

What is triangulation?

A

Where researchers use lots of methods within one case study e.g observations and experiments

This allows the researcher to pool data about the patient. They can look for themes, characteristics and problems.

130
Q

What does a longitudinal case study mean?

A

The patients are studied for a long period of time.

131
Q

What are strengths of a case study?

A

Rich data, can get lots of detail

Unique cases, these can challenge existing ideas and suggest new ideas for research

Ecological validity - in a natural environment

132
Q

What are weaknesses of case studies?

A

Reliability - cant repeat a case study

Cannot establish casual relationship - no control over variables

Lack of generalisation- only a single person so it’s hard to generalise findings

Ethics - informed consent can be difficult to obtain if they have a disorder

133
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A test before the actual experiment

A small scale experiment so the researcher can see if what they are doing will work

134
Q

What are the reasons for pilot studies?

A

Check participants understand instructions

Check the materials are correct/appropriate for experiment

Test their test works

Ask participants about their experience taking part

Test to see there are no extraneous variables

To see if they would get a result

Tackle problems to save time and money

135
Q

To get informed consent, what information does an experimenter need to include?

A

What the data will be used for

Full aims

Procedure

Right to withdraw

Ensure participants have signed consent form

136
Q

What is an alternative to informed consent?

A

Presumptive consent- assuming consent of participant by asking a group of people about the nature of the experiment.

137
Q

If a study has deceived participants, what should be included in debriefing?

A

The nature of the experiment

Reasons for deception

Additional support

138
Q

When should participants be told they can withdraw at any time?

A

Beginning , during and end of experiment.

139
Q

When participants choose to withdraw from the experiment, what can they also withdraw?

A

Their data and personal information

140
Q

If an experiment has left participants feeling distressed, what should the experimenter offer? When should this be offered?

A

They should offer support e.g. helplines

During debriefing

141
Q

What is an anonymity code?

A

A code that only the participant and experimenter understand the meaning of. It refers to the participant and is a way of maintaining confidentiality.

142
Q

What are the positives of calculating a mean?

A

Takes into account all of the scores, good measure of centrality, sensitive to data

Distribution can only have one mean

143
Q

What is a limitation of calculating a mean?

A

Extreme score can occur and change data.

144
Q

What is a positive of calculating the median?

A

Not affected by extreme scores

145
Q

What is a negative of calculating the median?

A

It does not take into account the precise value of each observation and hence does not use all information available in the data.

146
Q

What is a positive of calculating the mode?

A

Not affected by extreme score

147
Q

What is a negative of calculating the mode?

A

Not useful when there are several modes (bimodal distribution)

148
Q

How do you calculate the range in psychology?

A

Take the lowest value from the highest and add one.

149
Q

What is a positive of calculating the range?

A

Very easy to calculate/process

150
Q

What is a negative of calculating the range?

A

Only takes into account two most extreme values and may be unrepresentative of data as a whole.

151
Q

What is a positive of standard deviation?

A

More precise compared to range

Gives accurate idea about how data is distributed

152
Q

What is a negative of standard deviation?

A

Included all values and can be distorted by a single extreme value.

153
Q

Describe a left (negative) skew

A

Mode remains at highest point on peak

Median comes next

Mean has been dragged left

Bulk of scores on left

154
Q

Describe a right (positive) skew

A

Mode is highest point on peak

Mean is dragged to right

Median in middle

Bulk of scores concentrated on right

155
Q

What are strengths of quantitative data?

A

Easier to compare than qualitative data

Less time consuming

Less open to interpretation bias - objective

Easy to analyse, can calculate averages

156
Q

What are weaknesses of quantitative data?

A

Not very data rich

May fail to represent real life, oversimplified

Closed questions force people to make a response

157
Q

What are strengths of qualitative data?

A

More data rich

Accurate to real life

People can openly discuss their ideas, unrestricted answers

158
Q

What are weaknesses of qualitative data?

A

Chance of interpretation bias

Time consuming

Harder to compare

159
Q

What are strengths of primary data?

A

More relevant for study taking place - specific

Won’t be out of date

160
Q

What are weaknesses of primary data?

A

More time consuming

Lest cost efficient

Could be hard to obtain if people aren’t willing to participate

Ethical issues

Limited to how many participants are available

161
Q

What are strengths of secondary data?

A

Lest time consuming

Cost efficient

Can get a larger data base as gov has access to more people

162
Q

What are weaknesses of secondary data?

A

May be less relevant for study

May be out of date or
inaccurate

Researcher can’t personally check reliability

163
Q

What is a systematic review?

A

A review following a system of collecting data/information

Review =formal assessment

164
Q

How can a review be conducted?

A
  1. The researcher poses an aim
  2. Looks for studies within journal articles that have similar aims and hypothesis
  3. Analyses data and concludes a review
165
Q

What is a meta analysis? (secondary data)

A

Statistical technique for combining findings of several studies in a research area.

166
Q

What does a meta analysis create?

A

An effect size.

It is posed at the end of the review. It is the dependent variable produced.

e.g a program promoting healthy eating concluded that eating an apple a day reduces digestion problems by 45%

167
Q

What is a self report?

A

When an individual provides information about themselves to (usually) a second party.

168
Q

What does a questionnaire involve?

A

A pre-set list of written questions to which a participant responds.

They are used to assess thoughts and/or feelings.

May be used to assess dependent variable e.g. whether views on topics are different in older or younger people

169
Q

What is an open question?

A

Doesn’t have a fixed range of answers, respondents are free to answer in any way they they wish.

More qualitative data

May be hard to analyse

170
Q

What is a closed question?

A

A question with a fixed number of responses, yes or no

Provides quantitative data, easy to analyse

May lack depth and detail

171
Q

What are strengths of questionnaires?

A

Cost effective

Gather large amounts of data quickly, can be distributed to lots of people

Can be completed without experimenter being present, reduces effort

Easy to analyse

172
Q

What are limitations of questionnaires?

A

Responses may not always be truthful, may want to be presented better, demand characteristics - social desirability

Response Bias

Complete responses too quickly, acquiescence bias

173
Q

What are the three types of interviews?

A

Structured

Unstructured

Semi structured

174
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Pre-determined questions, asked in a fixed order

175
Q

What are unstructured interviews?

A

Like a conversation, no set questions

Has a general aim

Participants are encouraged to expand on answers

176
Q

What are semi-structured interviews?

A

A mixture of structure and no structure

Follow up questions

(job interview)

177
Q

What are strengths of structured interviews?

A

Easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this means it is easy to test for reliability.

Fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained, resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalised to a large population.

178
Q

What are limitations of structured interviews?

A

Not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked during the interview as an interview schedule must be followed.

The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked, which generates quantitative data. This means a researcher won’t know why a person behaves a certain way

179
Q

What are strengths of an unstructured interview?

A

More flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule

Generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview, etc. Interviewers have the chance to clarify any questions of participants during the interview.

180
Q

What are limitations of an unstructured interview?

A

It can be time-consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyse the qualitative data

Employing and training interviewers is expensive and not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires. For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport and knowing when to dive deeper.

Interviewers may bias the respondents’ answers, but interviewees may develop demand characteristics and social desirability issues.

181
Q

What makes a good questionnaire?

A

Avoiding double negatives. e.g. “I am not unhappy”

Avoiding double-barrelled questions, two questions in one

Easy to read

Good grammar

Avoiding ambiguous and technical words/jargon

182
Q

How can an interview be recorded to ensure the results are accurate?

A

Need consent to record the interview

Could have 2 people, one to ask and one to write

Pre-made table to record results

183
Q

How can an interviewer try to avoid interviewer bias?

A

Don’t change tone of voice

Structured interview

184
Q

How can an interviewer control extraneous variables?

A

Control the environment:
Same time of day
Quiet
Same lighting
Same temperature

185
Q

What is rapport?

A

A close relationship where the people or groups concerned understand each others feelings or ideas and communicate well.

186
Q

How could an interviewer help the participant be more honest?

A

Reinforce confidentiality

Make sure they are relaxed

Build up rapport

187
Q

What are ethics?

A

Standards (correct rules) that concern any groups of professions, regarding what is right and wrong in their field.

188
Q

What are issues?

A

Conflicts between two or more points.

189
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

Conflicts regarding the correct standards in a profession.

The British Psychological Society set standards for psychological research.

190
Q

What does the ethics form before research include?

A

Demographics

Details of proposed study

Harms, hazards and risk

Confidentiality and consent

191
Q

What is credibility?

A

How believable it is

192
Q

What does objective mean?

A

Factual

193
Q

What does subjective mean?

A

Opinion

194
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (including the right to withdraw) and also what their data will be used for.

195
Q

What are the problems with informed consent?

A

May lead to demand characteristics

Participants may not understand consent form

All risks may not be pointed out

Not revealing aim or method can lead to harm

196
Q

What is meant by deception?

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage during the investigation.

Lying to participants disables the informed consent

Sometimes it can be justified if it doesn’t cause undue distress

197
Q

What are problems with deception?

A

Lying to participants may create bad reputation for psychologists.

Participants consent may not be valid as they haven’t been able to give “true” consent.

198
Q

What is meant by right to withdraw?

A

Participants can be removed from the investigation if they wish.

They can withdraw their data

199
Q

What is meant by debriefing?

A

Telling participants anything they have missed out at the end of the experiment.

200
Q

What is meant by confidentiality?

A

Participants have the right to control information about themselves. This is the right to privacy.

Data is kept for 7 years.

Data shouldn’t be leaked.

Participants should be reassured

201
Q

What is meant by competence?

A

Having the ability to carry out the research i in order to avoid invalid results.

202
Q

What is meant by protection from harm?

A

As a result of their involvement, participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm.

203
Q

What is meant by privacy?

A

Cant invade personal life of participants

Research procedure may tap into inaccessible and very personal areas of a person.

psychology (11 decks)

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