research methods: key terms Flashcards
independent variable
variable you manipulate or vary in an experimental study to explore its effects
dependent variable
variable that changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation
uncontrolled variables
mediator variables which can change at any time. Dependent variables and independent variable can be impacted, making results difficult to interpret
experimental condition
the procedure that is varied in order to estimate a variables effect by comparison with a control condition
control condition
a condition of the independent variable in an experiment in which the independent variable itself is absent. It’s compared to one or more experimental conditions
experimental design
the way in which participants are allocated to conditions/levels of the independent variable
independent measures design
experimental design in which a different group of participants is used for each level/condition of the independent variable
demand characteristics
features of experimental situation which give away the aims. Can cause participants to try and change behaviour, which reduced the validity of the study
random allocation
a way to reduce the effect of confounding variables such as individual differences. Participants are put in each level of the independent variable such that each person has an equal chance of being in any condition.
repeated measures design
an experimental design in which each participant performs every level of the independent variable
participant variables
individual differences between participants (age, personality, intelligence, etc) that could affect their behaviour in a study that would hide or exaggerate differences between the levels of the independent variable
confounding variable
an uncontrolled variable that acts systematically on one level of the independent variable so could hide or exaggerate differences between levels and therefore confound or confuse the results making it difficult to understand the effect of the IV on the DV
matched pairs design
an experimental design in which participants are arranged into pairs. Each pair is similar in ways that are important to the study and one member of each pair performs in a different level of the IV.
controls
ways to keep potential confounding variables constant, eg between levels of the IV, to ensure measured differences in the DV are likely to be due to the IV, raising validity.
standardisation
keeping the procedure for each participant in a study exactly the same to ensure that any differences between participants or conditions are due to variables under investigation rather than differences in the way they were treated.
pilot study
a small-scale test of the procedure of a study before the main study in conducted. It aims to ensure that the procedure and materials are valid and reliable, so that they can be adapted if not
validity
the extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing
operational definition
the clear description of a variable such that it can be accurately manipulated, measures or quantified, and the study can be replicated. This includes the way that the IV and DV in experiments, and the co-variables in correlations, are described
generalise
to apply the findings of a study more widely, eg to other settings and populations
ecological validity
the extent to which the findings of research conducted in one situation would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation (eg laboratory) represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life (has mundane realism)
co-variables
two measures are taken and then compared to look for a relationship/correlation
cohort
a group of participants selected at the same age or stage
situational variable
a confounding variable caused by an aspect of the environment, eg amount of light or noise
sample attrition
loss of participants from a sample overtime. May be due to many reasons, eg losing contact, desire to discontinue, through boredom, being unavailable or death
intelligence quotient (IQ)
a measure of general reasoning and problem solving ability
self-report
a research method, such as questionnaire or interview, which obtains data by asking participants to provide information about themselves
inter-rater reliability
the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses in a questionnaire or interview will produce the same records from the same raw data
social desirability bias
trying to present oneself in the best light by determining how to respond to the task in a way that would be most acceptable to other people, rather than the researcher
filler questions
items put into a questionnaire, interview or test to disguise the aim of the study by hiding the important questions among irrelevant ones so that participants are less likely to work out the aims and then alter their behaviour
subjectivity
effect of an individuals personal viewpoint on, for example, how they interpret data. Interpretation may differ between individual researchers as a viewpoint may be biased by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so is not independent of the situation
objectivity
impact of an unbiased external viewpoint on, for example, how data is interpreted. Interpretation isn’t effected by an individuals feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent between different researchers.
inter-observer reliability
the consistency between two researchers watching the same event, ie whether they will produce the same records
replicability
the extent to which the procedure of a study can be kept the same whenever the research is repeated. This is especially important when a study is repeated, either by the same or different researchers to verify results. It also enables researchers conducting other studies to follow exactly the same procedure to test different aspects of a problem, different participant groups, etc
test-retest
a way to measure the consistency of a test or task. The test is used twice and if the participants’ two sets of scores are similar, i.e. correlate well, it has good replicability
reliability
the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent, for example, that it would produce the same results with the same people on each occasion
ethical guidelines
pieces of advice that guide psychologists to consider the welfare of participants and wider society
ethical issues
problems in research that raise concerns about the welfare of participants (or have the potential for a wider negative impact on society)
debriefing
giving participants a full explanation of the aims and potential consequences of the study at the end of the study so that they leave in at least as positive a condition as they arrived
experiment
an investigation that allows researchers to look for a casual relationship; an independent variable is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable
placebo
a pill or procedure given to a patient who believes it to be a real treatment which in fact has no active ‘ingredient’, i.e. no active drug in the case of a pill or no therapeutic value in the case of an intervention
informed consent
knowing enough about a study to decide whether you want to participate
right to withdraw
a participant should know that they can remove themselves, and their data, from a study at any time
protection from harm
participants should not be exposed to any greater physical or psychological risk than they would expect in their day-to-day life
deception
participants should not be deliberately misinformed about the aim or procedure of the study. If this is unavoidable, the study should be planned to minimise the risk of distress, and participants should be thoroughly debriefed. It may be done to reduce the effects of demand characteristics but should be avoided.
privacy
participants’ emotions and physical space should not be invaded, for example they should not be observed in situations or spaces where they would not expect to be seen
confidentiality
participants’ results and personal info should be kept safely and not released to anyone outside the study
closed questions
a question format in questionnaires, interviews or test items that produces quantitative data. They have only a few, stated alternative responses and no opportunity to expand on answers
open questions
a question format in questionnaires, interviews or test items that produces qualitative data. Participants give full and detailed answers in their own words, that is, no categories or choices are given.
generalisability
how widely findings apply, e.g. to other settings or populations
triangulation
is when different techniques, e.g. observations, interviews and tests, are used to study the same phenomenon. If they produce similar results, this suggests the findings are valid.
behavioural categories
activities recorded in an observation. They should be operationalised and should break a continuous stream of activity into discrete, recordable events. They must be observable actions rather than inferred states.
correlations
a research method that looks for a relationship between two measured variables. A change in one variable is related to a change in the other variable (although these changes cannot be assumed to be casual)
aim
the intention of the study, the idea being tested or the purpose of the research, such as to investigate a question or solve a problem
standardised instructions
the written or verbal info given to participants at the beginning and sometimes during a study that ensure the experience of all participants, regardless of level of the IV, is as similar as possible
sample
the group of people selected to represent the population in a study
bar chart
a graph used for data in discrete categories and total or average scores. There are gaps between each bar that is plotted on the graph because the columns are not related in a linear way
histogram
a graph used to illustrate continuous data, e.g. to show the distribution of a set of scores, It has a bar for each score value, or group of scores, along the x-axis
scatter graphs
a way to display data from a correlation study. Each point on the graph represents the point where one participant’s score on each scale for the co-variables cross
normal distribution
A bell-shaped distribution/ an even spread around the average/ the range of results produced by
a large random sample
