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Psychology (Paper 2) > Research Methods: Definitions > Flashcards

Research Methods: Definitions Flashcards

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1
Q

Define Experimental Method

A

Involves the manipulation of an IV to measure the effect on the DV. Experiments may be lab, field, or quasi.

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2
Q

Define Hypothesis

A

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables being investigated. Stayed at the outset of any study.

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3
Q

Define Directional Hypothesis

A

States the direction of the difference or relationship.

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4
Q

Define Non-directional Hypothesis

A

Does not state the direction.

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5
Q

Define Variables

A

Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within the investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing results in a change to another.

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6
Q

Define IV

A

Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or naturally changes - so the effect on the DV can be measured.

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7
Q

Define DV

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by a change in the IV.

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8
Q

Define Operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.

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9
Q

Define Aims

A

General statements that describe the purpose of the investigation.

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10
Q

Define EV

A

Any variable other than the IV that may have an effect in the DV if not controlled.

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11
Q

Define Confounding Variable

A

Any variable other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the changes to the DV.

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12
Q

Define Demand Characteristics

A

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by the participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to the participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.

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13
Q

Define Investigator Effects

A

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome. This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.

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14
Q

Define Randomisation

A

The use of chance in order to control the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.

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15
Q

Define Standardisation

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in the research study.

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16
Q

Define Experimental Design

A

The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental condition.

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17
Q

Define Independent Groups

A

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.

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18
Q

Define Repeated Measures

A

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.

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19
Q

Define Matched Pairs

A

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable that might affect the DV. Then one member of each pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B.

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20
Q

Define Counterbalancing

A

An attempt to control for the effects of order in repeated measures design. Half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other participants in the opposite order.

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21
Q

Define Random Allocation

A

An attempt to control participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as the other.

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22
Q

Define Lab Experiment

A

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.

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23
Q

Define Field Experiment

A

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

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24
Q

Define Natural Experiment

A

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher, but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV. In a natural experiment, the IV varies naturally and the participants are not randomly allocated into conditions.

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25
Q

Define Quasi-experiment

A

A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or otherwise) - the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. In a quasi-experiment the IV occurs naturally and the participants cannot be randomly allocated to each condition of this experiment.

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26
Q

Define Population

A

A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is studied.

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27
Q

Define Sample

A

A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population i.e. that it stands fairly for the population being studied.

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28
Q

Define Sampling Techniques

A

The method used to select people from the population.

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29
Q

Define Bias

A

In the context of sampling, it is when certain groups may be over or under-represented within the sample selected. E.g. too many young people, or too many people from a certain race. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.

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30
Q

Define Generalisation

A

The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population.

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31
Q

Define Ethical Issues

A

These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data. This conflict has implications for the safety and well-being of participants.

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32
Q

Define BPS Code of Ethics

A

A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with human participants. It is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.

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33
Q

Define Pilot Study

A

A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work to allow the researcher to make modifications if necessary.

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34
Q

Define Naturalistic Observation

A

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.

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35
Q

Define Controlled Observation

A

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment i.e. one where some variables are managed.

36
Q

Define Covert Observation

A

Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.

37
Q

Define Overt Observation

A

Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.

38
Q

Define Participant Observation

A

The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.

39
Q

Define Non-participant Observation

A

The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.

40
Q

Define Behavioural Categories

A

When target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.

41
Q

Define Event Sampling

A

A target behaviour or event is first established, then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.

42
Q

Define Time Sampling

A

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records the behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g. every 30 seconds.

43
Q

Define Self-report Techniques

A

Any method in which a participant is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.

44
Q

Define Questionnaire

A

A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.

45
Q

Define Interview

A

A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or over the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (as in a structured interview) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview).

46
Q

Define Open Questions

A

Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish.

47
Q

Define Closed Questions

A

Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter.

48
Q

Define Correlation

A

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.

49
Q

Define Co-variables

A

The variables investigated within a correlation, for example height and weight. They are not referred to as IV and DV as a correlation investigates the association between the variables and does not show whether the relationship is cause and effect.

50
Q

Define Positive Correlation

A

As one co-variable increases so does the other one e.g. the number of people in a room and noise produced.

51
Q

Define Negative Correlation

A

As one co-variable increases the other decreases e.g. the number of people in a room and the amount of personal space.

52
Q

Define Zero Correlation

A

When there is no relationship between the co-variabkes e.g. height of people and the number of hours spent reading daily.

53
Q

Define Qualitative Data

A

Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical.

54
Q

Define Quantitative Data

A

Numerical data that can be counted.

55
Q

Define Primary Data

A

Information that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.

56
Q

Define Secondary Data

A

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics.

57
Q

Define Meta-analysis

A

‘Research about research’, refers to the process of combining results from a number of different studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view. This may involve a qualitative review of conclusions and/or a quantitative analysis of the results producing an effect size.

58
Q

Define Descriptive Statistics

A

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.

59
Q

Define Measures of Central Tendency

A

The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data.

60
Q

Define Mean

A

The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the total number of values.

61
Q

Define Median

A

The central value in a set of data, when the values are arranged from lowest to highest.

62
Q

Define Mode

A

The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.

63
Q

Define Measures of Dispersion

A

The general term for any measure of the spread/variation in a set of scores.

64
Q

Define Range

A

A simple calculation of the dispersion of a set of data which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding one as a mathematical correction.

65
Q

Define Standard Deviation

A

A more sophisticated measure of dispersion. It tells you how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores. This is the variance. The square root of the variance gives you the standard deviation.

66
Q

Define Scattergram

A

A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis.

67
Q

Define Bar Chart

A

A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars.

68
Q

Define Normal Distribution

A

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, mode, and median are located on the highest peak.

69
Q

Define Skewed Distribution

A

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical where the data clusters to one end.

70
Q

Define Positive Skew

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is towards the positive side of the Peak and most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left.

71
Q

Define Negative Skew

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated towards the right.

72
Q

Define Reliability

A

The consistency of a test or procedure over time.

73
Q

Define Validity

A

The extent to which an observed effect is genuine. Does it measure what it claims to measure and can it be generalised beyond the research setting?

74
Q

Define Internal Validity

A

Whether the effect observed is due to the manipulation of the IV or some other factor.

75
Q

Define External Validity

A

Related to factors outside of the investigation and generalising to other situations, populations and eras.

76
Q

Define Ecological Validity

A

The extent to which the findings can be generalised from one setting to another.

77
Q

Define Temporal Validity

A

The extent to which the findings from a particular study, or concepts within a particular theory, hold true over time.

78
Q

Define Mundane Realism

A

The extent to which a study mirrors real life, e.g. how artificial the task is.

79
Q

Define Face Validity

A

Whether a test, scale or measure appears to measure what it is supposed to measure.

80
Q

Define Concurrent Validity

A

How closely a test, scale or measure’s results match those obtained on another recognised/well established test, scale or measure.

81
Q

Define Type 1/ False Positive Error

A

When a null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when it should have been the other way around due to an error in critical value selection.

82
Q

Define Type 2 / False Negative Error

A

When a null hypothesis is accepted and an alternative hypothesis is rejected when it should be the other way around due to an error in critical value selection.

83
Q

Define Paradigm

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.

84
Q

Define Paradigm Shift

A

The result of a scientific revolution. A significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.

85
Q

Define Objectivity

A

When all sources of personal bias are minimised so as to not disturb the research procedure, observation or exoerience.

86
Q

Define Replicability

A

The extent to which scientific findings and precedureds can be repeated by other researchers.

87
Q

Define Falsifiability

A

The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it has the possibility of being proved untrue.

Psychology (Paper 2) (1 decks)

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