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Psychology: A-level > Research Methods: Conducting Research > Flashcards

Research Methods: Conducting Research Flashcards

1
Q

What is a ‘hypothesis’ in an investigation?

A

a testable statement.

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2
Q

What are three things a hypothesis must contain?

A
  • Both conditions of the independent variable (operationalised)
  • The dependant variable
  • The word ‘significant’
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3
Q

What are the three type of hypothesis?

A
  • Directional
  • Non-Directional
  • Null
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4
Q

What is a Directional Hypothesis?

A

a directional hypothesis clearly states the outcome of the investigation (using words like ‘increase,’ ‘less,’ etc.)

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5
Q

When is a directional hypothesis used?

A

When there is prior research to suggest the outcome of an investigation.

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6
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis simply stating that there will be a ‘difference’ between the two conditions of the independent variable when they are compared in an investigation.

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7
Q

When are non-directional hypotheses used?

A

When there is no prior research to suggest the outcome of the investigation.

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8
Q

What is a Null Hypothesis?

A

A null hypothesis states that there will be no difference between the two conditions of the independent variable when they are compared.

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9
Q

When should a Null hypothesis be used/accepted?

A

All experiments must have a null hypothesis. When the experiment is complete, the researcher must decide if the will accept their experimental hypothesis (directional/non-directional) or their null hypothesis.

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10
Q

What is an independant variable in an experiment?

A

The variable that the researcher changes or manipulates.

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11
Q

What is the dependant variable in an experiment?

A

The variable that the researcher measures.

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12
Q

When designing an experiment, the researcher must operationalise the variable. What does it mean to operationalise a variable?

A

Making the variable measurable.

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13
Q

What is an Extraneous Variable?

A

Any variable that could affect the dependant variable (not the independent variable).

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14
Q

What is the Confounding Variable?

A

Any variable that affects the result of your study.

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15
Q

What is Reliability?

A

The idea that something is consistent.

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16
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

How consistent the studies results would be if replicated.

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17
Q

What is External Reliability?

A

How consistent results would be if repeated in a real-life setting.

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18
Q

What is Inter-Rater Reliability?

A

When two or more observers consistently observe the same behaviour.

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19
Q

What is Split-half Reliability?

A

Dividing the test in half and calculating the correlation between the two halves scores.

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20
Q

What is Test Retest Reliability?

A

When the same test is done twice and the results are consistent. Used on a measure (eg. IQ test).

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21
Q

What is Validity?

A

How accurate a study’s methods/findings are.

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22
Q

What is Internal Validity?

A

How accurately the study is measuring what you set out to measure.

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23
Q

What is External Validity?

A

The accuracy of which the results can apply to real-life.

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24
Q

What is population validity.

A

A measure of how accurately results can be generalised to the target population.
(A type of external validity)

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25
Q

What is Ecological Validity?

A

How accurately studies reflect behaviour in real-life settings.
(A type of External Validity)

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26
Q

What is Predictive Validity?

A

How accurately a study can predict future outcomes.

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27
Q

What is Construct Validity?

A

How accurately a study’s methods measure the independent variable.

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28
Q

What is Concurrent Validity?

A

The accuracy of a test compared to other, pre-established tests.

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29
Q

What is a Lab Experiment?

A

An experiment carried out in an artificial environment that gives the researcher full control of all variables.

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30
Q

What is a Field Experiment?

A

An experiment carried out in a natural setting.

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31
Q

What is a Quasi Experiment?

A

An experiment where the independent variable has occurred naturally and therefore cannot be changed/manipulated.

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32
Q

What is a target population?

A

The demographic/group of people that the researcher intends to study.

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33
Q

What is a Random Sampling Method?

A

A sample in which any member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

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34
Q

What is a Self-Selected Sampling Method?

A

When people respond to an advertisement for volunteers to take part in the research.

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35
Q

What is Opportunity Sampling?

A

Researcher selects the sample from people they have the opportunity of studying.

36
Q

What is a Snowball Sampling method?

A

When participants pass the study onto new participants. Can be used if your participants are not easy to contact (eg. Drug addicts).

37
Q

What is a Quota Sampling Method?

A

Gathering a sample according to the quota needed for research, done in an opportunistic way.

38
Q

What is a Stratified Sampling Method?

A

Sample in which the number of participants is proportional to the numbers of the population as a whole.

39
Q

What is a Systematic Sampling Method?

A

Using a pre-determine system to select the participants.

40
Q

What is Observer Bias?

A

When the researcher projects their expectations onto the research.

41
Q

What is the Observer Effect?

A

When the participants change their behaviour because they know they are being observed.

42
Q

What is meant by Naturalistic Observation?

A

An observation method where participants are observed in real-life settings.

43
Q

What is meant by Controlled Observation?

A

An observation method where participants are observed in a set-up environment.

44
Q

What is meant by Participant Observation?

A

A type of observation where the researcher joins in with the group they are observing.

45
Q

What is meant by Non-participant Observation?

A

A type of observation where the researcher does not join in with the group they are observing.

46
Q

What is meant by Covert Observation?

A

A type of observation where the participants do not know they are being observed.

47
Q

What is meant by Overt Observation?

A

A type of observation where the participants know they are being studied.

48
Q

What is meant by Time Sampling in Observations?

A

When behaviour is observed in time-slots, eg. every 5mins

49
Q

What is meant by event sampling in observations?

A

When behaviour is observed over a period of time.

50
Q

What are Open Questions in Questionnaires.

A

A question that requires an extended, written response from the participant.

51
Q

What are Closed Questions in Questionnaires?

A

A question that requires a short, written answer from the participant.

52
Q

What is meant by a Structured Interview?

A

An interview where the researcher goes in with pre-determined questions and does not deviate from them.

53
Q

What is meant by a Semi-Structured Interview?

A

An interview where the researcher goes in with predetermined questions but may deviate from these questions to find out more information.

54
Q

What is meant by an Unstructured Interview?

A

An interview where the researcher has no predetermined questions.

55
Q

What is Social Desirability Bias?

A

When participants lie to save their reputation.

56
Q

What is a Case Study (3 points)

A
  • A detailed investigation on a small sample involving a unique person.
  • The study would be carried out in the persons natural environment.
  • They are detailed and produce lots of qualitative data gathered through various methods.
57
Q

What are Longitudinal Studies?

A

Studies carried out over a long period of time, focusing on changes in participants.

58
Q

What is meant by Attrition in studies?

A

When participants drop out of a study halfway through.

59
Q

What is meant by Cohort Effects in participants?

A

When the participants all share an experience due to a common characteristic (eg. Rascism)

60
Q

What are Cross Sectional Studies?

A

A study conducted over a short period of time.

61
Q

What is Content Analysis?

A

A type of indirect observation in which data is gathered by studying materials produced by others (eg. Social media or journalism.)

62
Q

What is a Correlational Study?

A

A study that looks to establish a relationship between two co-variables.

63
Q

In a correlational study, what is a correlation coefficient?

A

A number between -1 and +1 that tell the researcher the type and strength of the correlation.

64
Q

In a correlational study, what does a positive coefficient mean?

A

It is a positive correlation, therefore both variables are increasing.

65
Q

In a correlational study, what does a coefficient of 0 mean?

A

There is no correlation between co-variables, therefore both variables are increasing/decreasing at different rates.

66
Q

In a correlational study, what does a negative coefficient mean?

A

It is a negative correlation, as one variable decreases, the other increases.

67
Q

TRUE OR FALSE
When writing a correlational hypothesis, we say there will be a significant difference instead of relationship?

A

FALSE
‘significant relationship’

68
Q

In Ethics, what is confidentiality and how can this be breached?

A

Confidentiality is the idea that any personal information collected from participants must be kept secure.
This can be breached is details of the participants are not kept secure.

69
Q

In Ethics, what is Deception and how can this be breached?

A

Deception occurs if the participant is not aware of the true aims of the study.
This can be breached if the researcher lies or omits information about the study during debriefing.

70
Q

In Ethics, what is Informed consent and how can this be breached?

A

Informed Consent is the idea that participants must have a comprehensive understanding of the research before they agree to participate.
This can be breached if participants give consent while not being fully informed of the aims of the study.

71
Q

In Ethics, what is a Debrief and how can this be breached?

A

A debrief is the process through which participants are provided with an explanation of the research’s aims after the study.
This can be breached if the true aims of the study are not revealed or if the participants are not offered support.

72
Q

In Ethics, what is meant by the Right To Withdraw?

A

The right to withdraw is the right participants hold to withdraw from the study at any point.
This can be breached if participants are denied this right or questioned about the reasons.

73
Q

In Ethics, what is Protection From Harm and how can this be breached?

A

Protection from harm is the idea that researchers must ensure their studies do not psychologically or physically harm participants.
This is breached if a participant is harmed during a study.

74
Q

What is an advantage and a disadvantage of brain scans?

A

Brain scans allow researchers to study live brains. However, they can be expensive and time consuming.

75
Q

What happens during an Electroencephalogram (EEG) brain scan and what are they used for?

A

Electrodes are attached to the scalp which detect electrical charges due to activity in the brain.
They are used for epilepsy and sleep studies.

76
Q

What are the advantages + disadvantages of an Electroencephalogram (EEG) brain scan?

A

Advantages are that they are silent, not invasive and do not use ionising radiation.
Disadvantages are that they only show activity in the cerebral cortex.

77
Q

What happens during a Computed Tomography (CT) brain scan and what are they used for?

A

X-rays show internal structure of cortex in slices from different angles.
They are used to detect brain injuries, skull fractures and can be used in Schizophrenia research.

78
Q

What are the advantages + disadvantages of Computed Tomography (CT) brain scans?

A

Advantages are that they show high resolution of the bone, soft tissues and blood vessels.
Disadvantages are that they have a high x-ray dose.

79
Q

What happens during an MRI brain scan and what are these used for?

A

A strong magnetic field causes protons in the body to align with the magnets in the machine and an image is created of the scanned area of the body.
Used for identifying structures (eg. abnormalities).

80
Q

What are the advantages + disadvantages of MRI brain scans?

A

Advantages are that they produce a detailed, anatomical image without using ionising radiation.
Disadvantages are that the process can be difficult for people with claustrophobia, the machine is very loud and that the patient is not allowed to move.

81
Q

What are the seven sections in a psychological reports format?

A
  1. Abstract: a summary of research
  2. Literature Review: highlighting previous findings from other studies.
  3. Methodology: Characteristics of participants and type of experiment.
  4. Procedure: Outlines how research was carried out.
  5. Results: Contains raw data from the study + brief explanation.
  6. Discussion: Evaluates the study using previous research.
  7. Conclusion: Summarises results.
82
Q

What is a Peer review?

A

A formal review of a document produced by another researcher, advising writers on how they can improve their document and establishing the credibility of the work.

83
Q

What is the process of a Peer Review?

A
  1. Author submits an article.
  2. Editor forwards the article to reviewers.
  3. Reviewers evaluate its quality and suggest improvements. If the article lacks scholarly validity they reject it.
  4. Author has the opportunity to make changes.
    This repeats until the article is ready for publication.
84
Q

What are the strengths of Peer Reviews?

A
  • Provides valuable feedback so that researchers can improve their papers before publication.
  • Promotes the scientific process through the development of high quality, comprehensive information.
85
Q

What are the weaknesses of Peer Review?

A
  • Not always easy to find an appropriate reviewer.
  • Difficult to hide the researchers identity from reviewer which could lead to biases.
  • Process is expensive and time consuming.

Psychology: A-level (5 decks)

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