Research Methods and Learning Theories

Question 1

State two similarities of experiments and correlations

Answer 1

Both have a null hypothesis to test against.

Both involve using controls in order to keep all variables the same except the ones being studied.

Question 2

State two differences of experiments and correlations

Answer 2

Experiments have an experiment hypothesis whereas correlations have an alternative hypothesis.
Experiments have an IV and DV whereas correlations have co-variables.

Question 3

Describe CAT scanning

Answer 3

A structural scanning technique that can pick up damage and other brain abnormalities.
The scanner passes multiple x-ray beams around the head at different angles.
These pictures can be interpreted by the computer to form 2D or 3D images of the structure of the brain.

Question 4

Describe PET scanning

Answer 4

A functional scanning technique that can identify damage and show which areas of the brain are active when performing different tasks.
A radioactive tracer is mixed with glucose and is injected into the bloodstream.
The radioactive glucose is detected by the PET scanner as it moves to the parts of the brain that are active at that time.

Question 5

Describe a scatter graph

Answer 5

It is used to plot the results of the two variables and then a line of best fit is drawn.
It is a visual representation of the direction and strength of the relationship.

Question 6

How are the colours in a PET scan interpreted?

Answer 6

Warm colours such as red/orange show higher activity.

Cold colours such as blue/green show lower activity.

Question 7

Describe fMRI scanning

Answer 7

In the scanner electromagnetic and radio waves are passed through the head by a magnet.
It does this by measuring changes in blood flow in particular areas of the brain when a task is carried out.
Increased blood flow indicates increased brain activity.
The scanner produces moving pictures that show activity. About one second after it occurs.

Question 8

State one strength and weakness of CAT scanning

Answer 8

👍It is possible to clearly and objectively detect areas of damage or the positioning of a brain tumour. This can then be used by psychologists to understand how brain damage affects behaviour such a aggression.
👎There are ethical concerns as the use of x-rays in CAT scans pose a risk to patients as they involve exposure to radiation. This can be harmful if repeated CAT scans are given.

Question 9

State one strength and weakness of PET scanning

Answer 9

👍It is possible to clearly and objectively detect areas if the brain that are not functioning normally, which can indicate damage or tumours. It allows clinicians to predict what kind of problems patients may face in relation to the brain activity shown.
👎There are ethical concerns as the use of radioactive travers make them invasive to an extent. It would not be advisable to have lots of scans because of the risks associated with too many radioactive tracers.

Question 10

State one strength and weakness of fMRI scanning

Answer 10

👍It is possible to clearly and objectively measure brain functioning. They allow psychologists to produce maps showing which areas of the brain are involved in particular mental activity.
👎Not suitable for all people because of the strong magnetic fields some people are unable to have this kind of brain scan. Eg those with a cardiac pacemaker. They are also upsetting for people who suffer with claustrophobia.

Question 11

Define classical conditioning

Answer 11

The process of learning through association. It works by building an association between two stimuli to create a learned response.

Question 12

What is an unconditional stimulus?

Answer 12

It is the biological/innate stimulus that causes an involuntary response.

Question 13

What is an unconditioned response?

Answer 13

It is a response to a specific stimulus that occurs naturally.

Question 14

What is a conditioned stimulus?

Answer 14

It is a stimulus that originally produced no natural response. It has been associated with the UCS and has been learnt through repetitive pairing/association.

Question 15

What is a conditioned response?

Answer 15

It is a learnt response to a stimulus it occurs when the CS is presented. The response is the same as to the UCS but to a different stimulus, CS.

Question 16

Give a step by step application of classical conditioning

Answer 16

Unconditioned stimulus (biscuits) ➡ unconditioned response (mouth-watering) 
Neutral stimulus (tea) ➡ no response
Neutral stimulus (tea) ➕ unconditioned stimulus (biscuits)➡ unconditioned response (mouth watering)
Conditioned stimulus (tea) ➡ conditioned response (mouth watering)

Question 17

Define extinction in classical conditioning

Answer 17

When a conditioned stimulus no longer leads to a conditioned response.

Question 18

Define spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning

Answer 18

After extinction, a previously conditioned association reoccurs spontaneously.

Question 19

Define stimulus generalisation

Answer 19

It is when a neutral stimulus, which becomes the conditioned stimulus, is not used in exactly the same form but still elicits the conditioned response.

Question 20

State the aim of Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 20

To investigate how the cerebral cortex works and look at reflex behaviour to see if he could work out pathways to the brain.

Question 21

State 4 procedure points of Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 21

Pavlov used dogs in his experiment and chose the reflex of salvation that he was able to measure in a quantifiable way by counting the drops of saliva.
Pavlov knew that food would lead to salvation in the mouth of the dogs. He then introduced a ticking metronome as a neutral stimulus.
Over several learning trails, the dog was presented with the ticking metronome immediately before the food was introduced.
After a while just the sound of the metronome led the dog to salivate with no food present.

Question 22

State two results of Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 22

On average salvation started after 9 seconds and by 45 seconds 11 drops had been collected.
Pavlov found that the dog had to be alert with no other stimuli present to distract of affect the acquired learning, for conditioning to take place.

Question 23

State the conclusion of Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 23

Pavlov concluded that is is signalisation in the brain that links the metronome to food and therefore gives the reflex response of salivation.

Question 24

State the aim of Watson and Raynor’s classic study

Answer 24

To see whether an emotional response to a neutral stimulus could be classically conditioned in humans.
To see if that fear could be transferred to other objects through a process of generalisation.

Question 25

State 4 procedure points of Watson and Raynor’s classic study

Answer 25

At 11 months and three days Little Albert was shown a white rat, and he reached out for it showing no fear.
As Albert touched the rat, a steel bar was struck behind him, which scared Little Albert.
This procedure was repeated one week later, the rat was shown to Albert a number of times, with and without the steel bar.
Little Albert was also presented with building bricks and a range of furry stimuli to test for stimulus generalisation. Included a rabbit, dog and a Santa Claus mask.

Question 26

State two results of Watson and Raynor’s classic study

Answer 26

The pairing of the rat and the loud noise created an association resulting in the rat being a conditioned stimulus producing fear as a conditioned response.
Little Albert demonstrated stimulus generalisation by showing various degrees of fear response and negativity towards a range if stimuli eg rabbit, dog.

Question 27

State two strengths of Watson and Raynor’s classic study

Answer 27

👍The study is high in reliability as Watson and Raynor’s took great care to identify and control variables that may have effected results. The IV was clear and operationalise with only variable manipulated at a time (rat, rabbit) and the DV was always carefully monitored and measured (Alberts response).
👍The study has practical applications as the findings are by only useful to inform us about the organs of phobias but can perhaps help us to understand how to treat them too.

Question 28

State two weaknesses of Watson and Raynor’s classic study

Answer 28

👎The study lacks ecological validity as it was carried out in an artificial setting for Albert and it is this lab setting which may have heightened Albert’a level of fear making it an unnatural response.
👎There are ethical concerns as Little Albert was put under a lot of distress on repeated occasions, and although he was allowed to rest between experiments Watson and Raynor continued even when they saw how distressed be became. Little thought was put into his protection from harm, right to withdraw and fully informed consent.

Question 29

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 29

Involves learning through consequences.

Question 30

What are the main features of operant conditioning?

Answer 30

Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment

Question 31

Describe positive reinforcement

Answer 31

A desired behaviour is rewarded with something pleasant.
The desired behaviour is likely to be repeated.
Eg a mother gives her praise (positive stimulus) for doing homework (behaviour)

Question 32

Describe negative reinforcement

Answer 32

Something unpleasant is taken away for showing the desired behaviour.
The behaviour is repeated to continue to remove the unpleasant stimulus.
Eg a son does the dishes to stop their mother nagging.

Question 33

Describe positive punishment

Answer 33

Something undesired is given as punishment for bad or unwanted behaviour.
The behaviour is less likely to be repeated.
Eg when a rat presses a lever (unwanted behaviour) it is given an electric shock as positive punishment.

Question 34

Describe negative punishment

Answer 34

Something pleasant is taken away because undesired behaviour has been shown.
The behaviour is less likely to be repeated.
Eg when a rat presses a lever (undesired behaviour) a food pellet is not provided.

Question 35

Describe primary reinforcers

Answer 35

Satisfies a basic need for survival eg food, sex. They meet our basic biological requirements such as physical comfort and nutrition.
They can be given as a reward for desired behaviour to motivate.

Question 36

Describe secondary reinforcers

Answer 36

Something that can satisfy a basic need but not in itself a basic need eg money is used to buy food.

Question 37

What are the schedules of reinforcement?

Answer 37

Fixed interval
Variable interval
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio

Question 38

Describe fixed interval

Answer 38

When the reward or punishment is delivered within a fixed time period after the behaviour has been shown.

Question 39

Describe variable interval

Answer 39

When the reward or punishment is delivered at varied time periods after the behaviour has been shown.

Question 40

Describe fixed ratio

Answer 40

When the reward or punishment is delivered after a certain number of response made eg a punishment after the second time you didn’t hand in your homework.

Question 41

Describe variable ratio

Answer 41

When the reward or punishment is delivered after a different number of responses are made eg a reward after 3 correct answers then after 7 answers.

Question 42

State a strength and a weakness of operant conditioning theory

Answer 42

👍It has practical applications to society. It can be used to explain a wide assortment of behaviours from addiction to language acquisition.
👎It lacks generalisability as the theory relies on the use on animal research and animals have a different anatomy and physiology to humans. This means the data is not representative of human behaviour.

Question 43

What are the main steps of observational learning?

Answer 43

1) the behaviour is modelled by a role model.
2) the observer identifies with the role model.
3) the behaviour is observed and noted.
4) the behaviour is then imitated and so it is learned.
5) repetition of the behaviour depends on reinforcement and rewards. We are motivated to repeat a behaviour if the consequences are rewarding.

Question 44

What makes an effective role model?

Answer 44

They are typically same sex as the observer and are admired by the observer for having status or power.

Question 45

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 45

Reinforcement can occur through watching others being reinforced. An observer is more likely to reproduce the models behaviour if the consequences for the role model are rewarding.

Question 46

What are the stages of Bandura’s social learning stages?

Answer 46

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

Question 47

Describe attention within Bandura’s social learning theory

Answer 47

Attention must be paid to a role models behaviour otherwise learning will not take place.
Factors affecting whether someone attends to a behaviour of others can depend on how distinctive the behaviour is, how relevant it is to the individual.

Question 48

Describe retention within Bandura’s social learning theory

Answer 48

The individual must then retain or store behaviour they have attended to. Humans store/retain the behaviours they observe in the form of mental images or verbal descriptors and are then able to recall these later when reproducing the behaviour.

Question 49

Describe reproduction within Bandura’s social learning theory

Answer 49

This involves carrying out the observed behaviour. Factors such as physical capabilities of the individual affect whether or not behaviour is reproduced.

Question 50

Describe motivation within Bandura’s social learning theory

Answer 50

If a reward is anticipate or received we are more likely to reproduce the behaviour.

Question 51

State one strength and one weakness of Bandura’s social learning theory

Answer 51

👍The theory is supported by Bandura’s experimental bobo doll studies which show that aggressive behaviour in children is more likely imitated when observing observing same sex role models.
👎The research the theory is based on lacks ecological validity. This is because studies have taken place in artificial lab settings. Eg in Bandura’s studies the bobo doll and other materials were placed in the room where the children were observed and the adult was was deliver stately aggressive or subdued towards the doll.