Research methods Flashcards
What does the Scientific method involve
Uses a formal set of tools and techniques to:
- investigate phenomena
- gain new knowledge
How does the scientific method gather data?
Uses
- observation
- Experiments
Data is measurable which can be assessed through logic and reasoning.
Experimental methods overview
- Research is conducted in a controlled way
* Variable are manipulated and measured - enabling case and effect to be determined.
What does a non-experimental method involve?
- Not a controlled experiment - meaning cause and effect can be difficult to establish.
What data gathering methods are considered non-experimental?
- Correlation
- Observation
- case studies
Advantages of quantitive research
Statistical tests can be run to find out if there are significant differences and patterns.
What sort of data does quantitive research gather?
To gather factual and numerical measurements of behaviour.
What sort of data does qualitative research gather?
Uses descriptive data (rather than numerical stats)
Focusses on thoughts and feeling of people, concerning an aspect of their life or a particular experience.
What types of methods are used to gather quantitative data?
- Experiments
- Correlation studies
- Structured observations
- Structured interviews
- closed questionnaires
What types of methods are used to gather qualitative data?
- Unstructured interviews
- case studies
- open questionnaires
- Some observational studies
Advantages of Qualitative research
A rich and detailed insight into behaviour is gained
Disadvantages of quantitive data
Rich in-depth description can be missed as just numerical data is gathered.
Disadvantages of qualitative data
- Analysing and drawing comparisons between participants or descriptive data can be harder.
- data could be misunderstood and interpreted incorrectly by the researcher; therefore not extracting the correct meaning from data.
- Numerical data is not gathered; cannot be analysed by tables, graphs and tests of difference.
- Statistical tests cannot be run to see significant differences and patterns forming.
Experimental method variables
Independent variable IV
Dependent variable DV
Extraneous variable
How do experimental variables work?
The experimenter manipulates the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. whilst trying to control extraneous variables
What do experimental variables enable you to establish?
can identify cause and effect
What does the independent variable do?
It has 2 experimental conditions
1. experimental condition
2. control condition
E.g. if a participant has drunk alcohol of not OR if they are young or old
These are manipulated by the experimenter
What is the dependent variable
The main measured outcome of the experiment due to the manipulation of the IV
What is the extraneous variable
other variables that may have an effect on the dependent variable.
They can be controlled to a degree - confounding variable cannot.
What does experimental design refer to?
How participants are allocated to control the experimental conditions.
What are the 3 basic experimental designs?
Independent group designs
The matched pairs design
Repeated/ related measures design
Explain independent group designs
- Different individuals in each condition.
* Randomly assigned to conditions (if a sample is large, * individual differences should cancel each other out)
Explain matched pairs design
Different individuals in each group
participants are paired/matched on variables considered important e.g. age, sex, medication. so they are as close a match with each other as possible.
Explain repeated measures design
Same individuals are used but tested under two or more conditions;
e.g. testing participants in a quiet and noisy room to see if there is a difference.
Strengths Independent group designs
No order effects
What are order effects?
Occur in the repeated measures design; Caused by experiencing one variable/condition then another. Will be either a; PRACTIE EFFECT FATIGUE EFFECT
What are practice and fatigue effects ?
Practice effect; Participant may improve on the second condition through practice
Fatigue effect; Participant may worsen in the second condition due to tiredness or boredom.
Weaknesses of independent group designs
* Participant variables not controlled randomly allocating (picking from a hat) means equal chances of being in either condition. * twice as many participants are needed
Strengths of matched pair design
- No Order effects
- Some participant variables are controlled
- Do not have to wait for first condition to be forgotten
- Can use the same materials
Weaknesses of matched pair designs
- Some Participant variables are still present.
REMEDY - Randomly allocate pairs to conditions.
*Finding matching participants is hard/time-consuming. - Loss of one member from the pairs means both will be lost from the experiment.
Strengths of repeated measures design
- Participant variables reduced
* Only need half the number of participants to get the same number of results. (participants can be hard to find)
What is counterbalancing?
Attempts to reduce order effects
How does counterbalancing work?
Participant divide into 2 groups Group 1 does: 1. A - in the morning 2. B - in the afternoon Group 2 does: 3. B - in the morning 4. A - in the afternoon
You then compare 1+3 then 2+4
Counterbalancing weaknesses
- Researcher will need to produce two sets of materials
(REMEDY - Use a long gap between conditions or use the independent group design)
*Participants may guess the aim of the second condition having completed the first.
(REMEDY - Deceive patients so that they are not aware of the study aim)
Strengths of the experimental method
- Strict controls (cause and effect can be determined)
* Replicable - procedures and instructions are standardized enabling repeat trials
Why are repeat trials of experiments important?
So results can be checked and experiments can be tested using the same measures but at different times for example.
Weaknesses of the experimental method
- ecological validity is lower and results cannot be generalised as often conducted in a lab environment meaning people may behave differently in unfamiliar surroundings
- False situation; standardised instructions and procedures are given making the situation false.
- Demand characteristics; Participants may guess the aim of the research and behave in ways to help the experimenter prove their aim
What are three types of experiments
Laboratory
Field experiment
Quasi-experiment
What does a laboratory experiment involve
- CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT -
Special environment to enable variables to be tightly controlled
IV is manipulated, DV measured, EV’s are taken into account and controlled as much as possible;
Cause and effect can be established. - Often used for animal studies as situational variables can be controlled which can affect attention such as noise/light/heat
What does random allocation yeild?
a true experiment as researchers cannot influence who participates - findings can therefore NOT be biased.
Advantages of lab experiments
Easier to control extraneous variables
CAUSE AND EFFECT CAN MORE EASILY BE ESTABLISHED.
Replicable - can produce similar results in future experiments and the participants will all experience the same.
Weaknesses of lab experiments
- ;acks ecological validity - Controlled environment = artificial setting. Behaviour may not reflect real-life behaviour
eg. high obedience may be viewed which would not be present in a real-life setting. - DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS HIGH (Changed behaviours to suit the researcher)
What does a field experiment entail?
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT - experiment takes place outside a lab setting e.g. a school, playpark.
*IV is manipulated by the experimenter
Feild experiment advantages
- HIGHER ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY (Behaviour studied in a more realistic environment.
- REDUCES DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS (participants unaware they have been studied so unable to work out the aim)
Field experiment disadvantages
DIFFICULT TO CONTROL - (Less confidence that the IV has had an effect on DV than in a lab)
ETHICAL ISSUES - Invasion of privacy, deception, causing stress and embarrassment. Informed consent hard and right to withdraw cannot be communicated.
What is a quasi-experiment
IV is not directly manipulated - relies on forces of nature e.g gender, height, intelligence
Quasi-experiment advantages
Enables studies on life which could not be deliberately manipulated eg. studying effects of bereavement on children’s social development.
HIGHER ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY - Studying natural behaviour in a natural environment.
Quasi-experiment weaknesses
LOW CONTROL over variables (uncertainty about whether the IV has caused an effect on the DV)
NOT REPLICABLE (Important in scientific methods - difficult to control a situ without controlling variables)
What are non-experimental research methods?
CORRELATION STUDIES
CASE STUDIES
OBSERVATIONS
What do correlation studies tell you
They look at a relationship between 2 variables. DO NOT SHOW ONE VARIABLE HAS CAUSED ANOTHER
How do correlation studies work?
- Use quantitative data to analyse relationships between 2 variables
- Does not deliberately manipulate a variable
- Variables are CO-VARIABLES NOT IV & DV
- Extraneous variables cannot be controlled - regardless of a strong relationship between co-variables - cause an effect cannot be found
What are the types of correlation?
Positive correlation
Negative correlation
No correlation
What does positive correlation show?
The relationship that shows as one variable increases so does the other.
What does negative correlation show?
The relationship that shows as one variable decreases so does the other.
What does no correlation show?
there is no relationship between variables - if one variable is high - we cannot predict what the other variable is doing.
What is a correlation coefficient?
measures the relationship between two variables for 1 to +. The closer to number 1 (+ or -) the closer the stronger the relationship
advantages of correlation
FURTHER RESEARCH - After a link has been discovered between 2 variables. Correlation coefficient can establish how strong the link is.
Relationship between 2 variables to be examined. (may not be possible in a controlled study)
Direction and strength of correlation can be discovered (positive - upwards Negative - downwards
Ethical reasons - e.g. number of weeks premature and the number of congenital birth defects.
Disadvantages of correlation
CAUSE AND EFFECT CANNOT BE ESTABLISHED (Only a link between 2 variable can be discovered)
n.b. There may be a 3rd invisible variable.
ONLY USEFUL FOR LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
Not useful for curve linear
How does the Biological perspective use Correlation studies?
Looks at whether behaviours are due to genes or environmental issues.
Correlation studies are used to isolate these factors.
e.g. twin studies that use concordance which is a measurement of the similarity of behaviour between pairs of twins. If higher in monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins it indicates the behaviour may be due to genes.
Strengths of twin studies
control for genetic inheritance as monozygotic twins genes are 100% the same.
INCREASED RELIABILITY AND GENERALISABILITY OF FINDINGS - Studies can be replicated as more twin births are being recorded.
Weaknesses of twin studies
CANNOT isolate the effects of the environment
Genes can be switched on and off at different times depending on environmental influences. (even if a behaviour is not shown, doesn’t mean that the twin doesn’t possess the genes for that behaviour.
Validity relies on measures of behaviour taken and whether these are valid. (if measurements are taken over a long period of time these may change)
Types of observational studies (6)
Overt covert Controlled Natual Participant Non-participant
What is an Overt observational study?
Participants know they are being observed
What is a covert observational study?
Participants do not know they are being observed
What is a controlled observational study?
Observations that are conducted in an experimental setting, where laboratory equipment may be needed.
What is a Natural observational study?
Recording behaviours in a participant’s natural setting/environment. E.g children’s play behaviour in a playground or.
Observer makes no attempt to influence behaviour.
What is a Participant observational study?
The researcher takes part in the action and joins in with those being observed. E.g. observations in a busy emergency room or participant observation whilst in a football crowd.
Overt observational study strengths
Less ethical issues
Overt observational study weaknesses
Participants do not behave naturally as they are aware they are being observed
Covert observational study strengths
Participants behave naturally – unaware they are being observed.
Covert observational study weaknesses
More ethical issues
Controlled observational study strengths
More control over environment than in naturalistic observations
Greater control meaning, easier replication.
Controlled observational study weaknesses
Lower ecological validity than naturalistic observations, due to setting.
Participants behaviour may alter as they are aware they are being observed.
Natural observational study strengths
High ecological validity of observed behaviour (especially if it is a covert observation)
Natural observational study weaknesses
Lack of control makes replication more difficult.
Ethical issues such as invasion of privacy in humans.
Participant observational study strengths
Close observations possible
Extremely detailed and in-depth knowledge can be gained (that may not be gained by other methods)
Participant observational study weaknesses
Researcher behavior could influence participants’ behaviours, making the results less valid. (Not a true reflection of the natural behavior usually shown in that situation)
Difficult to record data promptly and objectively (from a neutral position without the observers own thoughts and opinions creeping in) E.G. the observer may like the people he/she is observing and report about them more favourably.
Non-Participant observational study strengths
Observer remains objective.
Findings reported from a distance meaning a neutral and unbiased stance is portrayed.
Participants behaviour will not be influenced as the observer is not part of the group.
Non-Participant observational study weaknesses
Not as much detail and description will be gleaned about peoples behaviour.
The researcher will not have a true understanding of behaviour if they are too removed.
How does Event sampling work? (data collection)
The researcher notes an event each time it happens
e.g observing every time a female touches the male in a pair.
Often there is an observer stating when the behaviour happens and a recorder, logging the information.
how does Time sampling work? (data collection)
The researcher decides on a time frame e.g 5 seconds in every minute, and records the behaviour happening in that time frame.
DISADVANTAGE IS: Some behaviour will be missed if they are rare, therefore may not be representative.
How can you assess the reliability of observations?
Use inter-rater/observer reliability
This compares scored of two or more observers to check for agreement in their measurements.
How can you improve the reliability of observational studies?
Check that the categories are clear and that the observers are well trained in the use of checklists.
Why can observational studies lack validity?
If participants are aware they are being watched, demand characteristics may appear, and behave in a way they think they should behave.
Observer bias - who could be influenced by expectations and not record objectively what they see.
How could validity be improved in observational studies?
Observers could be kept unaware of the aim of the study
More observers could be employed (blind study)
Categories could be coded in a different/clearer way
What do case studies record?
Ideal for gaining an insight to behaviour, particularly rare or unusual behaviours
Which scientists would case studies be useful for?
Social scientists - to help explain atypical and normal behaviour
What types of data gathering methods are used by case studies?
Observations
Questionnaires
Interviews
What timeframe are case studies conducted over?
Longitudinaly (month / years following groups of people or individuals)
Retrospectively - Looking back in time and gathering info from interviews, school records, family member interiews.
CASE STUDY ADVANTAGES
Ecological validity high - (data reflects real-life)
Produces rich, meaningful qualitative data (greater insight into behaviours, could generate further research)
A useful way to study unusual behaviour (as can be hard to find)
Disadvantages of case studies
Difficult to replicate - (no strict controls and largely unstructured)
Extraneous behaviours could affect the results
Cause and effect difficult to establish
Difficult to generalise information to other individual groups so LOW IN POPULATION VALIDITY
Findings may be influenced by the researcher and person being studied
Interviewer Bias - (may have their own agenda ref outcome of findings and influence the way data is collected and conclusions drawn)
Biological research methods
Experiments
Correlation studies that look at, twin, adoption, family studies
Behaviourist research methods
Scientific lab experiments on observable behaviour
Learning theory research methods
Controlled observations
Cognitive research methods
Lab experiments
Case studies
Psychodynamic research methods
Case studies
Social psychology research methods
Field Experiments
Naturalistic observations
What research methods are used with Developmental perspective
Lab experiments
Field experiments
Interviews
