Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Social research can be ..
some methods require the use of..
researchers may also use …
A
Social research can be conducted for a number of purposes and these reasons influence the choice of methods used
some methods require the use of experiments to test a hypothesis
researchers may also use primary or secondary data or a combination of the two
2
Q
Methodology…
A
Methodology refers to the methods researchers use to collect data and philosophy
3
Q
Quantitative data consists of ..
A
Quantitative data consists of data in numerical form for example, the number of females and males passing an exam
4
Q
Qualitative data is …
A
Qualitative data is any data that is not numerical such as written description, diary entries, photographs, recorded music or radio programmes
5
Q
Primary resources …
these can b…
A
Primary resources are those sources of data that are produced directly by a sociologist conducting research such as the results of experiments all the answers obtained from questionnaires and interviews
these can be qualitative and quantitated data
6
Q
Secondary sources …
for example …
A
Secondary sources consist of existing data produced by someone else for example government statistics or the results of an experiment conducted by another researcher
7
Q
Methodological pluralism..
A
Methodological pluralism refers to the use of a variety of methods and types of data in a single research study
8
Q
Triangulation refers …
This may include using…
A
Triangulation refers to the use of a variety of methods and different types of data to cross check that the results obtained by one particular method are valid and reliable
This may include using qualitative unstructured interviews to check against responses to a quantitative survey
9
Q
What term refers to the use of a variety of methods and different types of data to cross check that the results obtained by one particular method are valid and reliable
A
Triangulation
10
Q
Methodological pluralism
A
The use of a variety of methods and types of data in a single research study
11
Q
Triangulation
A
The use of a variety of methods in different types of data to cross check that the results obtained by one particular methods are valid and reliable
12
Q
Methodology refers to …
A
Methodology refers to the methods research is used to collect data as well as the philosophy underlined the production of sociological data
13
Q
Sociologists fall into two…
A
Sociologists fall into two groups depending on what they think the best way to study society is positive test or interpretivist these viewpoints will then impact on their choice of research method
14
Q
Positivism refers to …
positivist methods produce …
A
Positivism refers to the belief that there are social facts that can be studied objectively using methods that are similar to the natural sciences
positivist methods produce quantitative data on social patterns and trends which can be used to explain society
15
Q
Positivist research methods include:
A
Positivist research methods include: Laboratory experiments. The comparative method. Social surveys. Structured questionnaires.
16
Q
Positivist research methods include:
A
Positivist research methods include: Formal/structured interviews. Non-participant observation. Official statistics. Content analysis.
17
Q
Interpretivism implies…
A
Interpretivism implies that people are conscious of their personal beliefs, meanings, values, and interpretations, and that these influence the way they act.
18
Q
From an interpretivist perspective, the researcher attempts..
A
From an interpretivist perspective, the researcher attempts to gain an in-depth understanding of how people see and understand the world around them by putting themselves in the position of those being studied; to understand things from their point of view.
19
Q
Interpretivists use qualitative methods in order to study social phenomena,including:
A
Interpretivists use qualitative methods in order to study social phenomena, including:
Uncontrolled field experiments.
Open-ended questionnaires.
Unstructured interviews.
Overt and covert participant and non-participant observation.
Personal accounts, using personal documents such as diaries and letters.
20
Q
Factors that Affect the Choice of Topic
A
Factors that Affect the Choice of Topic
The sociologist’s perspective, society’s values, practical factors and funding can all affect the choice of topic in a sociological study.
21
Q
… will affect what they want to study.
E.g. Marxists would be interested in …
A
The theoretical viewpoint the sociologist has will affect what they want to study.
22
Q
When values in society change so does …
For example … led to further research on gender equality.
A
When values in society change so does the focus of the research sociologists undertake.
For example the increase of feminism in 1960’s led to further research on gender equality.
23
Q
___ can be a barrier to studying a topic.
For example …
A
Accessibility can be a barrier to studying a topic.
For example studying global corporations may prove difficult to gain a sample and an insight.
24
Q
To undertake research sociologists often need…
There are funding bodies who can…
As the funding body is paying …
A
To undertake research sociologists often need funding to cover the costs of their study.
There are funding bodies who can provide economic support such as the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).
As the funding body is paying for the research they may state what they want to be studied.
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1). Formulation of a hypothesis
```
A hypothesis is a general ...
This is ... e.g.:
Middle class students ...
The sociologist will then ...
Positivists favour this approach as ..
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Formulation of a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a general explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence that can be proved or disproved.
This is presented as a statement e.g.
Middle class students outperform working class students.
The sociologist will then either confirm or disprove this.
Positivists favour this approach as it is scientific.
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2). Formulation of an aim
An aim is more..
An aim is..
Intepretivists favour this approach as it ...
Formulation of an aim
An aim is more appropriate than a hypothesis in some research studies.
An aim is broader and outlines what the researcher intends to study.
Intepretivists favour this approach as it allows the research to be guided by the participants.
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3). Choice of method
Choice of method
Next a sociologist must choose their method.
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4). Operationalising concepts
This is where the...
E.g. identify how to ...
Operationalising concepts
This is where the concepts within the sociologists aim/hypothesis are broken down to identify how they will be measured (operationalised).
E.g. identify how to measure the concept of social class.
29
5). Pilot study
A pilot study is a ...
Pilot study
A pilot study is a draft version of the research which is carried out on a small sample.
30
6). Data collection
The research is ...
Data collection
The research is carried out in full.
31
7). Publish findings
The sociologist interprets ...
A report will be written that ...
Publish findings
The sociologist interprets the data and analyses their data to identify their conclusions.
A report will be written that details the sociologist's research process and their findings which will then be published.
32
Practical Factors
Accessibility can ..
Practical Factors
Accessibility can be a barrier to studying a topic. For example studying global corporations may prove difficult to gain a sample and an insight.
33
A hypothesis is ...
A hypothesis is a general explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence that can be proved or disproved.
34
Research Considerations
Sociologists have to consider ... Some of these r ... while other are concerned with...
Research Considerations
Sociologists have to consider a range of issues when planning to carry out research.
Some of these are practical, ethical and theoretical, while other are concerned with the how useful any data collected is going to be.
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Influences on the choice of research topic and method
There are three main areas of concern when planning to conduct any sociological research study:
Influences on the choice of research topic and method
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There are three main areas of concern when planning to conduct any sociological research study:
Practical issues.
Ethical issues.
Theoretical issues.
Remember the three using "PET"!
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Key issues in social research
As well as practical, ethical and theoretical concerns, researchers also need to be...
Key issues in social research
As well as practical, ethical and theoretical concerns, researchers also need to be aware of issues of reliability, generalisability and validity.
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Reliability
Reliability refers to...
The same or similar results should be obtained if the...
Reliability
Reliability refers to whether the method can be replicated, or repeated, by others to check the results.
The same or similar results should be obtained if the study is carried out by a different researcher – the same or similar results would suggest that the method is reliable.
38
Generalisability
Generalisability refers to ...
Generalisability
Generalisability refers to whether the method enables the findings to be generalised to similar groups.
39
Validity refers to whether the chosen ...
Validity refers to whether the chosen method provides a true genuine depiction of what is being studied
40
```
Practical issues include:
Time and ...
How easily the researcher can access ...
Whether the researcher ...
The availability of ...
The career interests and need for researchers to ...
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Practical issues include:
Time and funding available.
How easily the researcher can access the place of the group to be studied.
Whether the researcher has the personal skills and characteristics needed.
The availability of existing data.
The career interests and need for researchers to meet deadlines and publish findings.
41
Ethical issues
The researcher has a duty to ...
More specifically, the researcher must ensure that they:
Avoid any harmful ...
Avoid ...
Ethical issues
The researcher has a duty to protect participants and ensure that their needs are met.
More specifically, the researcher must ensure that they:
Avoid any harmful consequences of either those being researched or the researcher.
Avoid deception (not being honest about the intentions of the study).
42
Ethical issues cont.
Ensure that they gain ...
Respect the privacy, ...
Ethical issues cont.
Ensure that they gain freely given informed consent of those taking part.
Respect the privacy, interests and anonymity of those taking part (confidentiality issues).
43
Theoretical issues
Whether a functionalist, Marxist or feminist...
Whether a positivist or interpretivist approach is adopted and how ...
Theoretical issues
Whether a functionalist, Marxist or feminist approach is adopted, and how this impacts the choice of topic.
Whether a positivist or interpretivist approach is adopted and how this influences choice of research method.
44
Theoretical considerations
Theoretical considerations in sociological research are ___
As a sociologist your theoretical perspective is central to the way ....
Theoretical considerations
Theoretical considerations in sociological research are paramount.
As a sociologist your theoretical perspective is central to the way you view the world and will therefore determine the way you choose to research society.
45
Positivists argue that sociology is a ______ and therefore they use .... such as ____and ___
These methods are high in ...
Positivists argue that sociology is a scientific discipline and therefore they use the most scientific research methods to conduct their studies, such as laboratory experiments and official statistics.
These methods are high in reliability and objectivity.
46
(Structural theories)Marxists and functionalists use positivist methodologies as they believe that ...
Marxists and functionalists use positivist methodologies as they believe that through science we can move forward as a society.
47
Interpretivists
Interpretivists choose to study ...
They argue that sociology should ... and they therefore choose ...
Interpretivists
Interpretivists choose to study individuals in society.
They argue that sociology should not be associated with science and they therefore choose to use non scientific methodologies.
48
Interpretivists methods include ...
Feminists use such methods as they argue that science is ... , instead they argue we should look to understand ... and their ...
Interpretivists methods include unstructured interviews and participant observations.
Feminists use such methods as they argue that science is male dominated and oppresses women, instead they argue we should look to understand individual women and their personal struggles in a patriarchal society.
49
(Interpretivism) Action theories also apply interpretivist methodologies to their understanding of ...
Central to such methodology are methods that produce ...
Action theories also apply interpretivist methodologies to their understanding of the social world around them.
Central to such methodology are methods that produce data high in validity and verstehen.
50
Describe the relationship between theory and methods used in research in the field of sociology.
1
General considerations
When conducting research sociologists need to consider ... Arguably, the _____ element is the most significant to consider
2
Theoretical considerations in sociological research are ____. As a sociologist, your theoretical perspective is ... and will, therefore, ...
3
Positivists argue that sociology is a ... and therefore they use the most ..., such as ... These methods are high in ...
4
Interpretivists choose to study ... They argue that sociology should not be ... and they choose to use ...
5
Interpretivists methods include ... Feminists use such methods as they argue that ..., instead they argue we ... and their ....
Describe the relationship between theory and methods used in research in the field of sociology.
1
General considerations
When conducting research sociologists need to consider practical limitations, ethical issues and theoretical restrictions. Arguably, the theoretical element is the most significant to consider.
2
Theoretical considerations in sociological research are paramount. As a sociologist, your theoretical perspective is central to the way you view the world and will, therefore, determine the way you choose to research society.
3
Positivists argue that sociology is a scientific discipline and therefore they use the most scientific research methods to conduct their studies, such as laboratory experiments and official statistics. These methods are high in reliability and objectivity.
4
Interpretivists choose to study individuals in society. They argue that sociology should not be associated with science and they choose to use non-scientific methodologies.
5
Interpretivists methods include unstructured interviews and participant observations. Feminists use such methods as they argue that science is male dominated and oppresses women, instead they argue we should look to understand individual women and their personal struggles in a patriarchal society.
51
Subjectivity, Objectivity and Value Freedom
Subjectivity is when you ...
Objectivity is ...
Value free sociology is ...
Subjectivity, Objectivity and Value Freedom
Subjectivity is when you make a judgment based on your own personal bias. Objectivity is associated with scientific disciplines. Value free sociology is championed by positivists.
52
Subjectivity is when you ...
| Sociologists are part .. n therefore ...
Subjectivity is when you make a judgment based on your own personal bias.
Sociologists are part of the society they study and are therefore involved with their own values and beliefs.
53
Subjectivity is often associated with ___ and ___ who believe that it is important to have ... and ..
Subjectivity is often associated with feminists and interpretivists who believe that it is important to have interaction and personal involvement and closeness to those being studied.
54
Objectivity is associated with ...
To be objective means the researcher has ...
Associated w ... and ...
Objectivity is associated with scientific disciplines.
To be objective means the researcher has removed all personal bias and opinions from their sociological research.
Associated with positivism and the use of quantitative methods.
55
Value free sociology is championed by ___
They argue sociology should be totally ...
This means that your .. instead,...
Value free sociology is championed by positivists.
They argue sociology should be totally value free.
This means that your own personal views and bias should not enter your research at any stage instead, sociology should study observable facts just like the natural sciences.
56
Positivists, such as Durkheim, believed that sociology was ... and therefore needed to follow ... in order to ...
It was the job of sociology to ...
___ believed his study of suicide was value free because he found ..
Positivists, such as Durkheim, believed that sociology was the science of society and therefore needed to follow scientific principles in order to gain credibility.
It was the job of sociology to identify social problems in society and cure social ills with scientific research.
Durkheim believed his study of suicide was value free because he found trends within official statistics that were gathered in a scientific way.
57
... didn’t believe that sociology could be completely value free, instead, he discusses the approach of_____ . To explain this, he breaks the research process down.
Value Relevance
Max Weber didn’t believe that sociology could be completely value free, instead, he discusses the approach of value relevance. To explain this, he breaks the research process down.
58
Weber didn’t believe that sociology could be completely value free, instead, he discusses the approach of ...
He argued sociologists will use ... and the ...
However, sociologists must be ...
Weber didn’t believe that sociology could be completely value free, instead, he discusses the approach of value relevance.
He argued sociologists will use their subjective feelings to identify a research topic and the concepts they feel are relevant.
However, sociologists must be objective in how they carry out their research.
59
Choice of topic area
When selecting a subject to study a researcher ... and ...
This aspect ...
Choice of topic area
When selecting a subject to study a researcher chooses an area that they are interested in and therefore using their values.
This aspect of all research is subjective.
60
Data collection and hypothesis testing:
This is the area of research that can ...
Weber agreed with positivists that this ...
Data collection and hypothesis testing:
This is the area of research that can remain objective should the researcher want to do so.
Weber agreed with positivists that this stage should remain as objective as possible.
61
Interpretation of findings:
| It is inevitable that they ... and is, therefore, ...
Interpretation of findings:
It is inevitable that they will be adapted to fit a particular value-based theoretical perspective and is, therefore, once again subjective.
62
Another approach to values is research is, value laden.
This means that the researcher is...
This can be for many reasons
Another approach to values is research is, value laden.
This means that the researcher is weighed down by their values and cannot escape them.
This can be for many reasons.
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Those who fund the research usually have ...
| These people are referred to as ___ and ...
Those who fund the research usually have an agenda.
| These people are referred to as paymasters and project their values onto the research.
64
___ argues that research can often b ...
| They will pick a topic to research that will ...
Gouldner argues that research can often be for career progression for the sociologist.
They will pick a topic to research that will get them noticed in the sociological community.
65
____ argues our personal beliefs can ...
We are often drawn to a topic as ...
___ argues this was crucial to his research as he investigated ...
Ken Plummer argues our personal beliefs can never be removed from our conscience.
We are often drawn to a topic as we have a desire to explore something important to us.
Plummer argues this was crucial to his research as he investigated his own sexuality through the development of ‘queer theory’.
66
Finally, Howard Becker argues that all sociologists should be ...
In this instance, sociologists will use their ... and in doing so...
Finally, Howard Becker argues that all sociologists should be value committed.
In this instance, sociologists will use their positions of power and insight to give a voice to the deprived and in doing so we can bring about social change.
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Becker believes we should ... and are therefore ...
| Therefore we should be ... and use ...
Becker believes we should always side with those who are less fortunate and are therefore the ‘underdog’.
Therefore we should be committed to our values and use them to improve the society we live in.
68
Weber believed it was inevitable that findings will be adapted to fit a ... and so this stage was therefore, once again ...
Weber believed it was inevitable that findings will be adapted to fit a particular value based theoretical perspective and so this stage was therefore, once again subjective.
69
Describe the principle of value committed research.
1
Source of argument
Becker argues that all sociologists should be ...
2
Describe position
Sociologists should use their positions of power ...and in doing so we can ...
3
Conclusion
Therefore we should be ... and use them to ...
Describe the principle of value committed research.
1
Source of argument
Becker argues that all sociologists should be value committed.
2
Describe position
Sociologists should use their positions of power and insight to give a voice to the deprived and in doing so we can bring about social change.
3
Conclusion
Therefore we should be committed to our values and use them to improve the society we live in.
70
Choice of topic area:
```
1
When selecting a subject to study a researcher ...
2
They therefore use ...
3
This aspect of all research is ..
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Choice of topic area:
1
When selecting a subject to study a researcher chooses an area that they are interested in
2
They therefore use their values
3
This aspect of all research is subjective
71
The ‘Modernist’ Era
| Key features of modernism:
The ‘Modernist’ Era
Key features of modernism:
The nation state
Capitalism
Individualism
Growth of science and rationalisation
72
The nation state:
Each country developed a...
Within each boundary, ...
The nation state:
Each country developed a political unit that had its own sovereignty.
Within each boundary, the population would usually share a common language and culture.
73
Capitalism:
The economic ...
It is the job of the state to ... however its nature is to ...
Capitalism:
The economic system of the modernist era.
It is the job of the state to regulate the capitalist system however its nature is to bring about inequality within society.
74
Growth of science and rationalisation:
| The dominance of ... (reduces) and is replaced...
Growth of science and rationalisation:
The dominance of religious belief in the traditional societies wanes (reduces) and is replaced by the new dominant belief system.
75
Individualism:
| Although ..., there is generally more ...
Growth of science and rationalisation:
The dominance of religious belief in the traditional societies wanes (reduces) and is replaced by the new dominant belief system.
76
... argue that things have changed from the Modernist era due to ...
Postmodernists argue that things have changed from the Modernist era due (mainly) to globalisation.
77
Postmodernists argue that things have changed from ...
They argue that all countries are now ... and therefore the separate nation states ...
Postmodernists argue that things have changed from the Modernist era due (mainly) to globalisation.
They argue that all countries are now connected and therefore the separate nation states are no longer significant in the way that they used to be.
78
Each nation state no longer has total ____ as ...
Examples include ...
Therefore postmodernists argue that due to such changes ... and we need new ...
Each nation state no longer has total autonomy as several global political organisations exist.
Examples include the United Nations and The European Union.
Therefore postmodernists argue that due to such changes, modernism no longer exists and we need new theories such as postmodernism to explain society.
79
They believe we are experiencing the ...
_____ argues that for some individuals their only interaction with the outside world is through the ... and this, therefore, shapes the...
They believe we are experiencing the ‘death of the social’.
Jean Baudrillard argues that for some individuals their only interaction with the outside world is through the media and this, therefore, shapes the way they think about the world.
80
Loss of community
As a result, the traditional need for ...
____ refers to this ...
Loss of community
As a result, the traditional need for a sense of belonging to a community has become redundant and no longer relevant.
Baudrillard refers to this process as the ‘death of the social’.
81
Sociology as a Science
Positivists argue that sociology is a ...
Interpretivists believe ...
Sociology as a Science
| Positivists argue that sociology is a science. Interpretivists believe sociology is not a science.
82
Comte developed the .... with regard to ...
Their belief was that society could be explained..., which can be obtained from ...
Positivists believe that you can acquire ... relationships – when...
Auguste Comte developed the theoretical perspective of positivism with regard to conducting research.
Their belief was that society could be explained with scientific principles based on objectivity, reliability, and generalisation, which can be obtained from quantitative data.
Positivists believe that you can acquire cause and effect relationships – when one thing occurs or changes it always provides the same result.
83
Functionalist Emile Durkheim was particularly influenced by ____ and applied it to...
He used induction, which is the process where... and patterns...
Functionalist Emile Durkheim was particularly influenced by Comte and applied it to his sociological study on suicide.
He used induction, which is the process where a researcher gathers a large sample of statistics, with the aim of finding trends and patterns that illustrate the impact of particular ‘social facts’ upon society.
84
The hypothetico deductive model
____ used ... and the Hypothetico-Deductive model in his research.
This is when a researcher ...
The hypothetico deductive model
Durkheim used official statistics and the Hypothetico-Deductive model in his research.
This is when a researcher starts with a hypothesis they wish to prove correct.
85
Interpretivists believe that the study of human behaviour cannot be scientific as our nature is ... and our actions ...
Interpretivists believe that the study of human behaviour cannot be scientific as our nature is completely unreliable and our actions can have a variety of complex meanings.
86
____ suggest that in order to get a valid understanding of the experiences of an individual, the researcher must try to understand them through abandoning the principles of objectivity by putting themselves in the place of the other – known as ...
Interpretivists suggest that in order to get a valid understanding of the experiences of an individual, the researcher must try to understand them through abandoning the principles of objectivity by putting themselves in the place of the other – known as ‘Verstehen’.
87
Interpretivists are critical of science as a ____
From an interpretivist point of view, ... and therefore ...
Interpretivists are critical of science as a discipline.
From an interpretivist point of view, science lacks validity as a subject area and therefore sociology should distance itself from the discipline.
88
Postmodernists would agree with interpretivists by arguing that sociology is not ...
This is because science is a ... that tries to ...
Postmodernists would agree with interpretivists by arguing that sociology is not a science nor should it want to be.
This is because science is a ‘meta-narrative’ or big story that tries to generalise every individual into a catch-all theory.
89
___ believes that any belief system that attempts to generalise every individual into a catch all theory is irrelevant in today’s fragmented postmodern society as ...
Lyotard believes that any belief system that attempts to do this is irrelevant in today’s fragmented postmodern society as there is no accepted monopoly of the truth.
90
Popper also argues that sociology is not a science.
| Popper’s views are very positive of science as a discipline as he believes that it has become dominant due to ...
Popper also argues that sociology is not a science.
Popper’s views are very positive of science as a discipline as he believes that it has become dominant due to its rapid growth during and after the ‘Enlightenment’
91
Popper disagreed with positivist researchers as he believed that ‘Verificationism’ was ____ to science due to ...
Popper disagreed with positivist researchers as he believed that ‘Verificationism’ was irrelevant to science due to what he calls the ‘fallacy of induction’.
92
___ argued that a scientist will never set out to prove themselves and their theory correct, instead they set out to prove themselves incorrect.
This is known as ____.
According to ___ the longer a theory stands without being proven incorrect the more ...
Popper argued that a scientist will never set out to prove themselves and their theory correct, instead they set out to prove themselves incorrect.
This is known as falsification.
According to Popper the longer a theory stands without being proven incorrect the more accurate it is.
93
Induction is the process where a researcher ... with the aim of ...
Induction is the process where a researcher gathers a large sample of statistics, with the aim of finding trends and patterns that illustrate the impact of particular ‘social facts’ upon society.
94
Who developed the theoretical perspective of positivism with regards to conducting research?
Comte
95
Who is often referred to as a ‘Humanistic Marxist’ because he believed the proletariat can influence social change through developing their own ‘hegemony’ rather than waiting for economic changes that Marx referred to?
Gramsci
96
What is the term that refers to the belief that there are ‘social facts’ that can be studied objectively using methods that are similar to the natural sciences (e.g. physics, chemistry and biology)?
Positivism
97
```
Plummer argued
(2 points)
```
Often drawn to a topic as we have a desire to explore something that we are interested in
Our personal beliefs can never be removed from our conscience
98
What is the current economic state of the modern era
Capitalism
99
Factors Influencing Data Collection Methods
Theoretical inclination of the researcher
-
-
Type of data needed
-
-
Factors Influencing Data Collection Methods
Theoretical inclination of the researcher
Positivist
Interpretivist
Type of data needed
Quantitative data
Qualitative data
100
The Hawthorne effect can potentially impact the results of most types of research: ...
The Hawthorne effect can potentially impact the results of most types of research: once people know they are being observed they might alter their behaviour as a way of pleasing the researcher, for example, by not telling the truth on a questionnaire.
101
Strengths of experiments:
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1
The hypothesis can be tested in a ...
2
It is easy to ...
3
High ___
4
Allows for ...
5
The researcher is seen ....
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Strengths of experiments:
1
The hypothesis can be tested in a controlled environment
2
It is easy to isolate and manipulate variables to identify the causes of events (except in field experiments)
3
High reliability
4
Allows for comparisons to be made with other experimental research
5
The researcher is seen as a detached, objective observer which is considered to be more scientific
102
Experiments are seldom used in ...
Experiments are seldom used in sociology by either positivists or interpretivists.
103
Weaknesses of the experimental method (1):
```
1
Difficult to ...
2
____ problems - ....
3
Experiments often involve ...
4
...this makes it difficult to ....
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Weaknesses of the experimental method (1):
1
Difficult to isolate a single cause of a social issue
2
Ethical problems - one group of participants are treated differently to another
3
Experiments often involve deception, where the researcher isn’t honest with the participants
4
...this makes it difficult to obtain informed consent
104
The experimental method has several ... The ___ method can be an option in these cases.
The experimental method has several weaknesses, making it inappropriate for some research projects. The Comparative method can be an option in these cases.
105
Experiments are the primary means of conducting ...
Experiments are the primary means of conducting research in the natural sciences.
106
Features of field experiments:
1
Conducted in ... and are therefore considered to be...
2
Seen by interpretivists as ...Features of field experiments
Features of field experiments:
1
Conducted in real-world environments and are therefore considered to be high in validity
2
Seen by interpretivists as producing more valid information
107
Surveys aim to be ... to wider population and not just the ppl studied
Surveys aim to be representative and generalisable to wider populations, and not just the people studied.
108
Surveys
A sample will not be representative if it is ... or if the .... is not complete
A sample will not be representative if it is too small or if the sampling frame (the list of names of all the those included in the survey population) is not complete.
109
In which sampling method would researchers select names from the sampling frame at regular intervals until the desired size is reached?
Systematic sampling
110
Sampling methods:
Sampling methods:
1
Quota sampling
researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits with certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed. The researcher might then find these 30 by going to a job centre. The problem of representativeness is again a problem with the quota sampling method.
2
Stratified random sampling
sample frame will be divided into a number of smaller groups, such as social class, age, gender, ethnicity etc. Individuals are then drawn at random from these groups.
3
Systematic sampling
picking every 10th person on a list or register.
this method may also be unrepresentative, depending on how the list is organised.
4
Random sampling
picking names out of a hat. In random sampling everyone in the population has the same chance of getting chosen. This is easy because it is quick and can even be performed by a computer. However, because it is down to chance you could end up with an unrepresentative sample, perhaps with one demographic being missed out.
5
Snowball sampling
researchers might find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
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Questionnaires are...
Questionnaires are a list of questions that are distributed by sociologists to people taking part in research
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questionnaires look to measure ...
Questionnaires are a list of questions that are distributed by sociologists to people taking part in research
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How are questionnaires distributed
Mail - post or email
face-to-face with researcher present
they can be handed out to be returned
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Closed questions are
...
They r ... questions
...
Pre coded to provide ...
____ and ___
Closed questions are
a fixed number of responses
They r yes or no questions
multiple-choice
Pre coded to provide quantitated data
attitudes and intentions
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Open questions
allows ...
produces more ...
explains ___ and ____
Open questions
allow the respondent to provide own unique responses
produces more qualitative data
explains meanings and motivations
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Usefulness of questionnaires
relatively ____ and ___ method to distribute
less ___ than methods such as observations
... - increasing representative
... with questionnaires
relatively cheap and quick method to distribute
less intrusive than methods such as observations
broad range of respondents - increasing representative
respondents familiar with questionnaires
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Practical issues with questionnaires
response rates - ...
____ questions or ____ questions
closed questions have ...
open questions can be...
Practical issues with questionnaires
response rates - too low to give representative sample
leading questions or ambiguous questions
closed questions have imposition problem
open questions can be time-consuming to analyse
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Ethical issues with questions
..... could cause distress
recording of information must be kept in ....
respondents may only give information if ...
may disclose responses that are ...
Ethical issues with questions
Potentially Sensitive topics could cause distress
recording of information must be kept in accordance with GDPR guidelines
respondents may only give information if an anonymity is maintained
may disclose responses that are immoral or require reporting to other bodies
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Theoretical issues with questionnaires close questions lack validity validity due to fix responses open question as my lack reliability as responses will be less likely to go to be repeated are we really measuring true opinions and behaviours positivists prefer) questions whilst endeavours vests prefer open questions
Y
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Examples of questionnaires
Census – distributed every 10 years to measure household information
Sullivan – researching cultural capital of parents
crime survey of England and Wales – 20,000 respondents each year on whether they have been a victim of crime in previous 12 months
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What are personal documents
Personal documents can include diaries letters photographs medical files school reports
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What r Historical documents
can include parish records government documents from previous eras
personal documents from the past
TV and radio broadcasts and
newspapers and magazines
can include parish records government documents from previous eras
personal documents from the past
TV and radio broadcasts and
newspapers and magazines
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What are social surveys
Typically structured questionnaires designed to collect information from large samples
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What are the strengths of social surveys
Easy to generalise and high reliability
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What our weaknesses of social surveys
Provide no meaning behind behaviours
participants may not understand a question
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What is a structured interview
A structured interview essentially is social surveys read out face-to-face or over the phone
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Advantages of structured interviews
High reliability
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Disadvantages of structured interviews
Provides no meaning behind behaviour
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What are unstructured interviews
A conversation guided by a few open questions which is then further flexed by the answers given
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Advantages of unstructured interviews
High validity
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Disadvantages of unstructured interviews
Low reliability
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What is participant observation
The research involves themselves with a group of people in order to study them
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Advantages of participant observation
There is high validity and it’s covert meaning more truthful results
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Disadvantages of participant observation
Covert – ethical issues surrounding informed consent over – Hawthorne effect
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What is nonparticipant observation
The researcher studies a group of people from afar
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Advantages of nonparticipant observation
High reliability (usually more structured)
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Disadvantages of nonparticipant observation
Ethical issues surrounding informed consent
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What are experiments
The aim to measure the effect of one variable on another and establish a cause and effect relationship
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What are advantages of experiments
Lab experiments a high in validity
field experiments are more natural in behaviour
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What are the disadvantages of experiments
They have low reliability
field experiments have ethical concerns surrounding informed consent
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What are personal documents
They are secondary sources of data and can be gained from items such as diaries letters and blogs
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What are the advantages of personal documents
We can look into detail about the meaning behind a behaviour
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What are the weaknesses of personal documents
They are hard to generalise findings to a wider population
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What are official statistics
There are secondary sources of data collected by government agencies
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What are the advantages of official statistics
They are objective and reliable
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The weaknesses of official statistics
Soft statistics can be subjective
may not always be able to directly apply to research questions
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Social facts developed by ____
they r aspects of social life that ...
they are separate from people but ...
for e.g.
Social facts developed by Durkheim
they r aspects of social life that influence and shape an individuals behaviour and attitudes
they are separate from people but impose themselves on individuals
for example norms, values, ideologies and social structures
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Positivism
assumes society has ...
society exerts ...
What kind of data?
objective / subjective
macro/ micro approach
researchers should remain ____ and research should be ___ ____
reliability/ validity
Examples of what methods they use to conduct research
Positivism
assumes society has objective social facts
society exerts influence on its members
quantitated data
objective
macro approach
researchers should remain detached and research should be value free
reliability
questionnaires, structured interviews experiments
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Interpretivism
Reality is constructed thru...
Our actions are the result of ...
What kind of data?
objective / subjective
macro/ micro approach
researchers should develop rapport and empathy
reliability/ validity
Examples of what methods they use to conduct research
Interpretivism
Reality is constructed through the meanings created by individuals
Our actions are the result of our own meanings not external forces
Quantitative
subjective
micro approach
researchers should develop rapport and empathy
validity
Unstructured interviews ethnography participant observation
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Theoretical
Validity
representativeness
reliability
perspective (positivism and interpretivism) theoretical perspective
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Practical factors
time available
sources and amount of funding requirements of funding bodies skills of the researcher
subject matter
research opportunities may only be possible to study in times of tragedy
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Ethical factors
```
Informed consent
confidentiality
privacy
protection from harm (physical sexual emotional or psychological)
deception
```
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Consensus, conflict and social action theorists
Consensus theories believe all structures ... as w o this - they look for ... (____)
Conflict theories see institutions in society ... (...)
Social action theorists examine the actions of ppl in ...
Consensus, conflict and social action theorists
Consensus theories believe all structures within society all act in agreement as without this society would collapse - they look for value consensus (functionalism)
Conflict theories see institutions in society conflicting w each other, each trying to gain power over the other (marxism and feminism)
Social action theorists examine the actions of ppl in context of the meanings they assign to them n the relationship between these actions and the actions of others
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Can sociology b value free
Marxism / feminism
No cos research is ... and ...
```
Positivism
Yes (...) sociology is a ____ so research should b _____ n ____ using ... that dont dwell on ...
```
New right
Sociology isnt ... as it .... n ignores ...
PM’s
There is no such thing as a value free observation and science can’t be applied to society in the same way that its applied to nature as observations must b interpreted even if the researchers dont see that their values r having an impact
Can sociology b value free
Marxism / feminism
No cos research is designed to find solutions to issues in society n that cant happen if values and beliefs r removed from it
```
Positivism
Yes (comte Durkheim) sociology is a science so research should b value free n objective using quantitative methods that dont dwell on personal opinion
```
New right
Sociology isnt value free as it exaggerates the defects of capitalism n ignores the benefits so any research into capitalism is biased
PM’s
There is no such thing as a value free observation and science can’t be applied to society in the same way that its applied to nature as observations must b interpreted even if the researchers dont see that their values r having an impact
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Ways sociology influences social policy
providing ...
changing ___ (indirectly impacts policies at it as it changes common sense judgements)
providing a ... for a government (e.g.1979–1992_____ government was influenced by the new right)
providing...
identifying ...
providing evidence for...
assessing if...
Providing an awareness of cultural differences
providing self-awareness of social status
changing assumptions (indirectly impacts policies at it as it changes common sense judgements)
providing a theoretical framework for a government (e.g.1979–1992 Conservative government was influenced by the new right)
providing practical professional knowledge
identifying social problems
providing evidence for social policies
identify consequences of current policies
assessing if neo-current policies are actually working
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Influences on social policy-making
research into ...
... to implement policies
only choose to focus on research that ...
how ... portray the issue
religious organisations with ...
the willingness of ...
whether the topic is ...
research into sociological problems
money available to implement policies
only choose to focus on research that supports the hostility and judgement towards certain people for example prostitutes
how the media portray the issue
religious organisations with moral frameworks
the willingness of the powerful to care for the less powerful
whether the topic is actually considered a problem or not
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Perspectives to like social policies
functionalism
... work for ... and reflect ...
so contribute to ... although ... preferred
labelling theory - Critical of how the ... as it stops them from ____
Braithwaite – social policy needs ...
Marxists
The state and social ... as it ... as well as policies such as ...
left realists
Inner-city crime can ... and reducing ...
functionalism
The state and social policy work for the good of all who make up society and reflect value consensus
so contribute to social order although gradual social change preferred
labelling theory - Critical of how the CJS labels criminals as it stops them from integrating Braithwaite – social policy needs to expand a restorative justice schemes and focus on ‘re-integrative shaming’ so the act is shamed and not the person
Marxists
The state and social policy work together in the interest of capitalism as it hides and justifies exploitation as well as policies such as NHS keeping workers healthy
left realists
Inner-city crime can only be reduced by social policy that improves economic opportunities while reducing deprivation and racist policing
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Perspectives who don’t like social policies
feminism
Radical – ...
liberal – ...
new right: not keen on state interference as social policies have ... created an...
Wilson and Kelling encourage ...
crime must be ... isnt necessary
feminism
Radical – Social policy reinforces women’s subordination, supporting patriarchy
liberal – social policy has brought about gender equality for example equal pay act
new right: not keen on state interference as social policies have led to a ‘nanny state’, undermining responsibility created an underclass of people who dont work and rely on benefits
Wilson and Kelling encourage communities to take responsibility to deter criminals
crime must be designed out by increasing CCTV and alarms so social policy isn’t necessary
