Research Methods Flashcards
define experimental method
the manipulation of an IV to measure its effect on the DV
define aim
general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
define hypothesis
a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables being investigated
define directional hypothesis
states the direction of difference or relationship
define non-directional hypothesis
does not state direction
define variables
anything that can vary or change within an investigation
define IV
some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher so that an effect on the DV can be measured
define DV
variable that is measured by the researcher
define operationalisation
clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
define EV
variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV - do not vary systematically with the IV
define CV
variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV - does vary systematically with the IV
define demand characteristics
any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted by cps as revealing the purpose of the investigation - may lead to a change in B
define investigator effects
any effect of the investigator’s B on the research outcome - may include selection and interaction with pps
define randomisation
use of chance in order to control effects of bias when designing materials and deciding order of condition
define standardisation
using exactly same formalised procedures and instructions for pps
what is an independent groups design
pps allocated to diff groups where each group experiences a diff experimental condition
what is a repeated measures design
all pps experience all conditions within an experiment
what is a matched pairs design
pairs of pps are matched on some variable that may affect the DV, then one member is allocated to condition A and the other condition B
define random allocation
attempt to control pp variables in an independent groups design which ensures each pp has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
define counterbalancing
attempt to control order effects in repeated measures design; half pps experience conditions in one order, and other half in opposite order
give two limitations of independent groups design
- pps who occupy each group are not the same (effects on DV may be due to pp variables, not IV)
- less economical than repeated measures as each pp only produces one result
give two strengths of independent groups design
- no order effects
- pps less likely to get bored
give two limitations of repeated measures design
- order effects (cause boredom, deterioration in performance)
- pps more likely to work out aim of study
give two strengths of repeated measures design
- pp variables are controlled
- more economical that independent groups design (less pps needed)
give two limitations of matched pairs design
- time-consuming
- expensive
give two strengths of matched pairs design
- order effects and DC less of a problem
- fewer pp variables
define lab experiment
an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which that researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining a strict control over EVs
define field experiment
an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
define quasi experiment
a study in which the IV is not determined by anyone, it simply exists (e.g. being old and young)
define natural experiment
an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but instead occurs naturally
give two strengths of lab experiments
- high internal validity
- easily replicable
give two limitations of lab experiments
- may lack generalisability
- DC can arise
give two strengths of field experiments
- high mundane realism
- high external validity
give two limitations of field experiments
- low control over EVs
- ethical issues with consent
give two strengths of natural experiments
- provide opportunities for study in areas that may be considered ethically wrong (e.g. Romanian orphans)
- high external validity
give two limitations of field experiments
- limited generalisability (v. rare)
- issues related to random allocation
give two strengths of quasi experiments
- high control
- high internal validity
give two limitations of quasi experiments
- cannot randomly allocate pps
- may be CVs
define population
group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
define sample
group of people drawn from a target population who take part in research
define sampling techniques
method of selecting pps for a study
define bias in relation to sampling
when certain groups may be over or under represented within the sample
define generalisation
the extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular study can be broadly applied to the population
define target population
a subset of the general population
define random sampling
all members from target population have an equal chance of being selected
how would you do a random sample
random number generator
define systematic sampling
when every nth person from the target population is selected
how would you do a systematic sample
create a list organised in alphabetical ordering select a system (e.g. every 3rd, 7th or 10th person is selected)
define stratified sampling
composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain strata in the target/ wider population
how would you do a stratified sample
identify different strata that make up population and calculate the proportions needed
define opportunity sampling
where researcher selects anyone willing and available at the time
define volunteer sampling
pps select themselves to be part of the sample
how would you do a volunteer sample
place an advert in a newspaper
give two strengths of random sampling
- free from researcher bias
- theoretically representative
give two limitations of random sampling
- list of population can be difficult to obtain
- time consuming process
give two strengths of systematic sampling
- avoids researcher bias
- fairly representative
give two limitations of systematic sampling
- risk of data manipulation
- less random than random sampling
give two strengths of stratified sampling
- avoids researcher bias
- highly representative sample
give two limitations of stratified sampling
- time consuming
- identified strata don’t reflect ways in which individuals within them are different
give two strengths of opportunity sampling
- convenient
- cheap
give two limitations of opportunity sampling
- chance of researcher bias
- sample may be unrepresentative (area taken from can be reflected by people)
give two strengths of volunteer sampling
- requires minimal input from researcher
- saves time
give two limitations of volunteer sampling
- volunteer bias (attracts certain kind of person)
- limited generalisability
define informed consent
making pps aware of study aims, procedures and right to withdraw
give a limitation of informed consent
- B may not be natural
define deception
deliberately misleading or withholding info from pps
define protection from harm
not placing pps in danger of physical or psychological damage
define privacy and confidentiality
pps have right to control info about themselves and withdraw at any point
define ethics
arise when conflict exists between the rights of pps and goals of research to produce valid data
define pilot study
small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real thing to check procedures, materials and measuring scales work and allow the researcher to make changes if necessary
define single-blind
attempt to control DC where pps are unaware of research aims
define double-blind
attempt to control DC and researcher bias where pps and individual carrying out investigation are unaware of the research aims
what is the purpose of a control group
to set a baseline for the purpose of comparison
define naturalistic obs
watching and recording B in the setting within which it would normally occur
define controlled obs
watching and recording B in the setting within a structured environment where some variables are controlled
define covert obs
pps B is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
define overt obs
pps B is watched and recorded with their knowledge or consent
define pp obs
researcher becomes a member of the group whose B their are watching and recording
define non-pp obs
researcher remains outside the group whose B their are watching and recording
give two strengths of a naturalistic obs
- high external validity
- generalisable
give two limitations of a naturalistic obs
- lack of control
- difficult to replicate
give two strengths of a controlled obs
- high control
- easy replication
give two limitations of a controlled obs
- findings not so readily applied to real-life
- lack mundane realism
give two strengths of a covert obs
- removed DC
- increases validity of results
give two limitations of a covert obs
- questionable ethics
- have to fit in with pp group
give two strengths of a overt obs
- more ethically acceptable
- do not have to fit in with pp group
give two limitations of a overt obs
- chance of DC
- decreases validity of results
give two strengths of a pp obs
- increased insight
- increase validity of findings
give two limitations of a pp obs
- lose objectivity
- researcher has to blend in
give two strengths of a non-pp obs
- observer remains objective
- does not have to blend in
give two limitations of a non-pp obs
- lack insight
- decreased validity
what should be avoided when writing Qs
- use of jargon
- emotive language
- leading wording
- double-barrelled Qs
give a strength of mode
easy to calculate
give a limitation of mode
unrepresentative
give a strength of median
not affected by extreme values
give a limitation of median
less sensitive than mean
give a strength of range
easy to calculate
give a limitation of range
may be unrepresentative of data set
give a strength of SD
more precise than range
give a limitation of SD
distorted by extreme values
give a strength of mean
most representative
give a limitation of mean
easily distorted
define B categories
when a target B is broken up into components that are obs and measurable
define time sampling
target individual or group is first established then researcher records their B in a fixed time frame, e.g. every 30s
define event sampling
target B or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
define structured obs
obs that involves the use of B categories to make recording data more easy and systematic
what type of data do structured obs produce
quantitative
define quantitative data
data that can be counted, usually given as numbers
define qualitative data
data that is expressed in words and is non-numerical
give a strength of qualitative data
rich and in detail
give a limitation of quantitative data
lacks depth and detail
give a limitation of qualitative data
open to interpretation
what should be ensured to make B categories an effective method of data collection
- must not overlap
- must be clear/ specific
define self-report technique
any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their feelings, opinions B and/ or experiences on a given topic
give a strength of time sampling
produces easy to analyse data
give a strength of event sampling
can be used to study frequent and infrequent events
give a limitation of time sampling
can miss important events
give a limitation of event sampling
difficult of lots of B occur at once
define semi-structured interview
interview in which a list of Qs was worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow-up Qs when appropriate
define open Q
Q that does not have a fixed range of answers
define closed Q
Q that has a fixed number of responses
give two strengths of structured interviews
- easy to replicate
- reduces differences between interviewers
give two strengths of unstructured interviews
- more flexible
- more insight gained
give two limitations of structured interviews
- not flexible
- may lack insight
give two limitations of unstructured interviews
- difficult to replicate
- differences in interviewers may create differences in answers
give a strength of open Qs
rich and in detail
give a strength of closed Qs
easy to analyse
give a limitation of open Qs
difficult to analyse
give a limitation of closed Qs
lacks detail
give a limitation of closed Qs
lacks detail
give two strengths of Q’aires
- cost-effective (distributed to lots of people)
- little effort required on behalf of researcher
give two limitations of Q’aires
- social desirability bias
- acquiescence bias
define correlation
mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables
define positive correlation
an increase in one variable is accompanied by an increase in another
define negative correlation
the increase in one variable is accompanied by the decrease in another
define co-variables
the variables investigated with a correlation - NOT IV and DV
define zero correlation
when there is no relationship between co-variables
what is the difference between experiments and correlations
in an experiment the researcher manipulates the IV whilst there is no manipulation of variables in a correlation
give two strengths of correlations
- provide a precise and quantifiable measure as to how two variables are related
- relatively quick and economical to carry out
give two limitations of correlations
- lack of control
- tells us HOW variables are related but not WHY
give two strengths of correlations
- provide a precise and quantifiable measure as to how two variables are related
- relatively quick and economical to carry out
give two limitations of correlations
- lack of control
- tells us HOW variables are related but not WHY
define normal distribution
symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern, mean, median and mode are located at the highest peak
define skewed distribution
spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical
define positive skew
type of distribution where the tail is on the positive side of the peak
define negative skew
type of distribution where the tail is on the negative side of the peak
give a strength of secondary data
inexpensive, requiring minimal effort
give a limitation of primary data
requires time and effort
give a limitation of secondary data
may be outdated or incomplete
define descriptive stats
use of graphs, tables and summary stats to identify trends and analyse sets of data
define mean
average calculated by adding all values and dividing by the number of values there are
define median
central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest
define mode
most frequently occurring value in a set of data
define range
calculation of dispersion in a set of scores which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score
define SD
measure of dispersion that tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score (which are all added together and divided up by the number of scores - which is the sqrted)
define measures of dispersion
general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores
define measures of central tendency
general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data
define measures of central tendency
general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data
define scattergram
type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables
define bar chart
a type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the heights of the bars
define peer review
assessment of scientific work by others who’re specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publicity is of high quality
give the two main aims of peer review
- validate the quality and relevancy of research
- to suggest amendments and improvements
define primary data
info collected first-hand by the researcher for the purpose of the research study
define secondary data
info already collected by someone else so pre-dates the current research study
give a strength of primary data
relevant, ‘fits the job’
define meta-analysis
process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view
define case study
in-depth investigation and analysis of a single individual, group or event
define content analysis
research technique that enables an indirect method of studying human B through examining the communications people produce (e.g. TV, in texts and emails)
define thematic analysis
inductive and qualitative approach to analysis involving the identification of explicit or implicit ideas within the data
give two strengths of case studies
- in depth, provide lots of detail
- contribute to our understanding of ‘normal’ functioning (e.g. HM)
give two limitations of case studies
- limited generalisation
- info provided is subjective
define reliability
consistency of measurements and findings
define test-retest reliability
method of assessing the reliability of a Q’aire by assessing the same person on two different occasions
define inter-rater reliability
the extent to which there is agreement between two or more obs involved in obs the same B
define validity
the extent to which an obs effect is genuine - measures what it claims to
define face validity
form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it measures what it is supposed to (e.g. does test look like it measures anxiety)
define temporal validity
extent to which findings from research can be generalised to other historical times and eras (external validity)
define concurrent validity
extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing measure
define ecological validity
extent to which findings from research can be generalised to other settings and situations (external validity)
define falsifiability
principle that a T cannot be scientific unless it can be proved false
define objectivity
when all sources of personal bias are minimised so to not distort or influence the research process
gives some aspects that make research scientific
- high control (establish cause-effect relationship)
- opp. vs (measurements are accurate and objective)
- standardised (enable repeats to enhance reliability)
