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AQA Psychology Alevel > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

define experimental method

A

the manipulation of an IV to measure its effect on the DV

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2
Q

define aim

A

general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

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3
Q

define hypothesis

A

a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables being investigated

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4
Q

define directional hypothesis

A

states the direction of difference or relationship

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5
Q

define non-directional hypothesis

A

does not state direction

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6
Q

define variables

A

anything that can vary or change within an investigation

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7
Q

define IV

A

some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher so that an effect on the DV can be measured

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8
Q

define DV

A

variable that is measured by the researcher

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9
Q

define operationalisation

A

clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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10
Q

define EV

A

variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV - do not vary systematically with the IV

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11
Q

define CV

A

variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV - does vary systematically with the IV

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12
Q

define demand characteristics

A

any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted by cps as revealing the purpose of the investigation - may lead to a change in B

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13
Q

define investigator effects

A

any effect of the investigator’s B on the research outcome - may include selection and interaction with pps

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14
Q

define randomisation

A

use of chance in order to control effects of bias when designing materials and deciding order of condition

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15
Q

define standardisation

A

using exactly same formalised procedures and instructions for pps

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16
Q

what is an independent groups design

A

pps allocated to diff groups where each group experiences a diff experimental condition

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17
Q

what is a repeated measures design

A

all pps experience all conditions within an experiment

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18
Q

what is a matched pairs design

A

pairs of pps are matched on some variable that may affect the DV, then one member is allocated to condition A and the other condition B

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19
Q

define random allocation

A

attempt to control pp variables in an independent groups design which ensures each pp has the same chance of being in one condition as any other

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20
Q

define counterbalancing

A

attempt to control order effects in repeated measures design; half pps experience conditions in one order, and other half in opposite order

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21
Q

give two limitations of independent groups design

A
  • pps who occupy each group are not the same (effects on DV may be due to pp variables, not IV)
  • less economical than repeated measures as each pp only produces one result
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22
Q

give two strengths of independent groups design

A
  • no order effects

- pps less likely to get bored

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23
Q

give two limitations of repeated measures design

A
  • order effects (cause boredom, deterioration in performance)
  • pps more likely to work out aim of study
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24
Q

give two strengths of repeated measures design

A
  • pp variables are controlled

- more economical that independent groups design (less pps needed)

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25
Q

give two limitations of matched pairs design

A
  • time-consuming

- expensive

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26
Q

give two strengths of matched pairs design

A
  • order effects and DC less of a problem

- fewer pp variables

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27
Q

define lab experiment

A

an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which that researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining a strict control over EVs

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28
Q

define field experiment

A

an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

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29
Q

define quasi experiment

A

a study in which the IV is not determined by anyone, it simply exists (e.g. being old and young)

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30
Q

define natural experiment

A

an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but instead occurs naturally

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31
Q

give two strengths of lab experiments

A
  • high internal validity

- easily replicable

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32
Q

give two limitations of lab experiments

A
  • may lack generalisability

- DC can arise

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33
Q

give two strengths of field experiments

A
  • high mundane realism

- high external validity

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34
Q

give two limitations of field experiments

A
  • low control over EVs

- ethical issues with consent

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35
Q

give two strengths of natural experiments

A
  • provide opportunities for study in areas that may be considered ethically wrong (e.g. Romanian orphans)
  • high external validity
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36
Q

give two limitations of field experiments

A
  • limited generalisability (v. rare)

- issues related to random allocation

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37
Q

give two strengths of quasi experiments

A
  • high control

- high internal validity

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38
Q

give two limitations of quasi experiments

A
  • cannot randomly allocate pps

- may be CVs

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39
Q

define population

A

group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn

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40
Q

define sample

A

group of people drawn from a target population who take part in research

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41
Q

define sampling techniques

A

method of selecting pps for a study

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42
Q

define bias in relation to sampling

A

when certain groups may be over or under represented within the sample

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43
Q

define generalisation

A

the extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular study can be broadly applied to the population

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44
Q

define target population

A

a subset of the general population

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45
Q

define random sampling

A

all members from target population have an equal chance of being selected

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46
Q

how would you do a random sample

A

random number generator

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47
Q

define systematic sampling

A

when every nth person from the target population is selected

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48
Q

how would you do a systematic sample

A

create a list organised in alphabetical ordering select a system (e.g. every 3rd, 7th or 10th person is selected)

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49
Q

define stratified sampling

A

composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain strata in the target/ wider population

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50
Q

how would you do a stratified sample

A

identify different strata that make up population and calculate the proportions needed

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51
Q

define opportunity sampling

A

where researcher selects anyone willing and available at the time

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52
Q

define volunteer sampling

A

pps select themselves to be part of the sample

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53
Q

how would you do a volunteer sample

A

place an advert in a newspaper

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54
Q

give two strengths of random sampling

A
  • free from researcher bias

- theoretically representative

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55
Q

give two limitations of random sampling

A
  • list of population can be difficult to obtain

- time consuming process

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56
Q

give two strengths of systematic sampling

A
  • avoids researcher bias

- fairly representative

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57
Q

give two limitations of systematic sampling

A
  • risk of data manipulation

- less random than random sampling

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58
Q

give two strengths of stratified sampling

A
  • avoids researcher bias

- highly representative sample

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59
Q

give two limitations of stratified sampling

A
  • time consuming

- identified strata don’t reflect ways in which individuals within them are different

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60
Q

give two strengths of opportunity sampling

A
  • convenient

- cheap

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61
Q

give two limitations of opportunity sampling

A
  • chance of researcher bias

- sample may be unrepresentative (area taken from can be reflected by people)

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62
Q

give two strengths of volunteer sampling

A
  • requires minimal input from researcher

- saves time

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63
Q

give two limitations of volunteer sampling

A
  • volunteer bias (attracts certain kind of person)

- limited generalisability

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64
Q

define informed consent

A

making pps aware of study aims, procedures and right to withdraw

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65
Q

give a limitation of informed consent

A
  • B may not be natural
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66
Q

define deception

A

deliberately misleading or withholding info from pps

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67
Q

define protection from harm

A

not placing pps in danger of physical or psychological damage

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68
Q

define privacy and confidentiality

A

pps have right to control info about themselves and withdraw at any point

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69
Q

define ethics

A

arise when conflict exists between the rights of pps and goals of research to produce valid data

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70
Q

define pilot study

A

small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real thing to check procedures, materials and measuring scales work and allow the researcher to make changes if necessary

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71
Q

define single-blind

A

attempt to control DC where pps are unaware of research aims

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72
Q

define double-blind

A

attempt to control DC and researcher bias where pps and individual carrying out investigation are unaware of the research aims

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73
Q

what is the purpose of a control group

A

to set a baseline for the purpose of comparison

74
Q

define naturalistic obs

A

watching and recording B in the setting within which it would normally occur

75
Q

define controlled obs

A

watching and recording B in the setting within a structured environment where some variables are controlled

76
Q

define covert obs

A

pps B is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

77
Q

define overt obs

A

pps B is watched and recorded with their knowledge or consent

78
Q

define pp obs

A

researcher becomes a member of the group whose B their are watching and recording

79
Q

define non-pp obs

A

researcher remains outside the group whose B their are watching and recording

80
Q

give two strengths of a naturalistic obs

A
  • high external validity

- generalisable

81
Q

give two limitations of a naturalistic obs

A
  • lack of control

- difficult to replicate

82
Q

give two strengths of a controlled obs

A
  • high control

- easy replication

83
Q

give two limitations of a controlled obs

A
  • findings not so readily applied to real-life

- lack mundane realism

84
Q

give two strengths of a covert obs

A
  • removed DC

- increases validity of results

85
Q

give two limitations of a covert obs

A
  • questionable ethics

- have to fit in with pp group

86
Q

give two strengths of a overt obs

A
  • more ethically acceptable

- do not have to fit in with pp group

87
Q

give two limitations of a overt obs

A
  • chance of DC

- decreases validity of results

88
Q

give two strengths of a pp obs

A
  • increased insight

- increase validity of findings

89
Q

give two limitations of a pp obs

A
  • lose objectivity

- researcher has to blend in

90
Q

give two strengths of a non-pp obs

A
  • observer remains objective

- does not have to blend in

91
Q

give two limitations of a non-pp obs

A
  • lack insight

- decreased validity

92
Q

what should be avoided when writing Qs

A
  • use of jargon
  • emotive language
  • leading wording
  • double-barrelled Qs
93
Q

give a strength of mode

A

easy to calculate

94
Q

give a limitation of mode

A

unrepresentative

95
Q

give a strength of median

A

not affected by extreme values

96
Q

give a limitation of median

A

less sensitive than mean

97
Q

give a strength of range

A

easy to calculate

98
Q

give a limitation of range

A

may be unrepresentative of data set

99
Q

give a strength of SD

A

more precise than range

100
Q

give a limitation of SD

A

distorted by extreme values

101
Q

give a strength of mean

A

most representative

102
Q

give a limitation of mean

A

easily distorted

103
Q

define B categories

A

when a target B is broken up into components that are obs and measurable

104
Q

define time sampling

A

target individual or group is first established then researcher records their B in a fixed time frame, e.g. every 30s

105
Q

define event sampling

A

target B or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

106
Q

define structured obs

A

obs that involves the use of B categories to make recording data more easy and systematic

107
Q

what type of data do structured obs produce

A

quantitative

108
Q

define quantitative data

A

data that can be counted, usually given as numbers

109
Q

define qualitative data

A

data that is expressed in words and is non-numerical

110
Q

give a strength of qualitative data

A

rich and in detail

111
Q

give a limitation of quantitative data

A

lacks depth and detail

112
Q

give a limitation of qualitative data

A

open to interpretation

113
Q

what should be ensured to make B categories an effective method of data collection

A
  • must not overlap

- must be clear/ specific

114
Q

define self-report technique

A

any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their feelings, opinions B and/ or experiences on a given topic

115
Q

give a strength of time sampling

A

produces easy to analyse data

116
Q

give a strength of event sampling

A

can be used to study frequent and infrequent events

117
Q

give a limitation of time sampling

A

can miss important events

118
Q

give a limitation of event sampling

A

difficult of lots of B occur at once

119
Q

define semi-structured interview

A

interview in which a list of Qs was worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow-up Qs when appropriate

120
Q

define open Q

A

Q that does not have a fixed range of answers

121
Q

define closed Q

A

Q that has a fixed number of responses

122
Q

give two strengths of structured interviews

A
  • easy to replicate

- reduces differences between interviewers

123
Q

give two strengths of unstructured interviews

A
  • more flexible

- more insight gained

124
Q

give two limitations of structured interviews

A
  • not flexible

- may lack insight

125
Q

give two limitations of unstructured interviews

A
  • difficult to replicate

- differences in interviewers may create differences in answers

126
Q

give a strength of open Qs

A

rich and in detail

127
Q

give a strength of closed Qs

A

easy to analyse

128
Q

give a limitation of open Qs

A

difficult to analyse

129
Q

give a limitation of closed Qs

A

lacks detail

130
Q

give a limitation of closed Qs

A

lacks detail

131
Q

give two strengths of Q’aires

A
  • cost-effective (distributed to lots of people)

- little effort required on behalf of researcher

132
Q

give two limitations of Q’aires

A
  • social desirability bias

- acquiescence bias

133
Q

define correlation

A

mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables

134
Q

define positive correlation

A

an increase in one variable is accompanied by an increase in another

135
Q

define negative correlation

A

the increase in one variable is accompanied by the decrease in another

136
Q

define co-variables

A

the variables investigated with a correlation - NOT IV and DV

137
Q

define zero correlation

A

when there is no relationship between co-variables

138
Q

what is the difference between experiments and correlations

A

in an experiment the researcher manipulates the IV whilst there is no manipulation of variables in a correlation

139
Q

give two strengths of correlations

A
  • provide a precise and quantifiable measure as to how two variables are related
  • relatively quick and economical to carry out
140
Q

give two limitations of correlations

A
  • lack of control

- tells us HOW variables are related but not WHY

141
Q

give two strengths of correlations

A
  • provide a precise and quantifiable measure as to how two variables are related
  • relatively quick and economical to carry out
142
Q

give two limitations of correlations

A
  • lack of control

- tells us HOW variables are related but not WHY

143
Q

define normal distribution

A

symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern, mean, median and mode are located at the highest peak

144
Q

define skewed distribution

A

spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical

145
Q

define positive skew

A

type of distribution where the tail is on the positive side of the peak

146
Q

define negative skew

A

type of distribution where the tail is on the negative side of the peak

147
Q

give a strength of secondary data

A

inexpensive, requiring minimal effort

148
Q

give a limitation of primary data

A

requires time and effort

149
Q

give a limitation of secondary data

A

may be outdated or incomplete

150
Q

define descriptive stats

A

use of graphs, tables and summary stats to identify trends and analyse sets of data

151
Q

define mean

A

average calculated by adding all values and dividing by the number of values there are

152
Q

define median

A

central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest

153
Q

define mode

A

most frequently occurring value in a set of data

154
Q

define range

A

calculation of dispersion in a set of scores which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score

155
Q

define SD

A

measure of dispersion that tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score (which are all added together and divided up by the number of scores - which is the sqrted)

156
Q

define measures of dispersion

A

general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores

157
Q

define measures of central tendency

A

general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data

158
Q

define measures of central tendency

A

general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data

159
Q

define scattergram

A

type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables

160
Q

define bar chart

A

a type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the heights of the bars

161
Q

define peer review

A

assessment of scientific work by others who’re specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publicity is of high quality

162
Q

give the two main aims of peer review

A
  • validate the quality and relevancy of research

- to suggest amendments and improvements

163
Q

define primary data

A

info collected first-hand by the researcher for the purpose of the research study

164
Q

define secondary data

A

info already collected by someone else so pre-dates the current research study

165
Q

give a strength of primary data

A

relevant, ‘fits the job’

166
Q

define meta-analysis

A

process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view

167
Q

define case study

A

in-depth investigation and analysis of a single individual, group or event

168
Q

define content analysis

A

research technique that enables an indirect method of studying human B through examining the communications people produce (e.g. TV, in texts and emails)

169
Q

define thematic analysis

A

inductive and qualitative approach to analysis involving the identification of explicit or implicit ideas within the data

170
Q

give two strengths of case studies

A
  • in depth, provide lots of detail

- contribute to our understanding of ‘normal’ functioning (e.g. HM)

171
Q

give two limitations of case studies

A
  • limited generalisation

- info provided is subjective

172
Q

define reliability

A

consistency of measurements and findings

173
Q

define test-retest reliability

A

method of assessing the reliability of a Q’aire by assessing the same person on two different occasions

174
Q

define inter-rater reliability

A

the extent to which there is agreement between two or more obs involved in obs the same B

175
Q

define validity

A

the extent to which an obs effect is genuine - measures what it claims to

176
Q

define face validity

A

form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it measures what it is supposed to (e.g. does test look like it measures anxiety)

177
Q

define temporal validity

A

extent to which findings from research can be generalised to other historical times and eras (external validity)

178
Q

define concurrent validity

A

extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing measure

179
Q

define ecological validity

A

extent to which findings from research can be generalised to other settings and situations (external validity)

180
Q

define falsifiability

A

principle that a T cannot be scientific unless it can be proved false

181
Q

define objectivity

A

when all sources of personal bias are minimised so to not distort or influence the research process

182
Q

gives some aspects that make research scientific

A
  • high control (establish cause-effect relationship)
  • opp. vs (measurements are accurate and objective)
  • standardised (enable repeats to enhance reliability)

AQA Psychology Alevel (3 decks)

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