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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Aims

A

Developed from theories, general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation

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2
Q

Hypothesis

A

Clear testable statement that states the relationship between the variables and predict the outcome of a study before it starts

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3
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

Identifies direction of difference between two conditions

Directional

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4
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

States a difference between conditions but the nature of the difference is not made clear

Used when there is no prior evidence or results are contradictory

Non-directional

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5
Q

IV

A

Independent variable, variable that experimenter manipulates, or naturally changes so effect on DV can be measured

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6
Q

DV

A

Dependent variable, variable measured against the IV

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7
Q

Operationalisation

A

Variables being manipulated should be clearly defined and measurable

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8
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Variables that do not vary systematically with the IV, can often be controlled before experiment starts

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9
Q

Confounding variable

A

Variables that do vary systematically with IV, can’t be sure what is effecting DV

Essentially extraneous variables the experimenter failed to control for

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10
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Participants interpret cues from the experimenter (investigator effects) and research situation. They may change their behaviour as a result

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11
Q

Randomisation

A

The use of chance to reduce researcher’s influence on the design of the investigation

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12
Q

Standardisation

A

Making sure all ppts are subject to the same standardised instructions and experience

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13
Q

Random allocation

A

Attempt to evenly distribute ppt difference across experimental conditions in independent group designes

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14
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Attempt to control for order effects in repeated measures experiment, half the group experiences conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order

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15
Q

Experimental design

A

The different ways in which the testing of ppts can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

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16
Q

Experiment

A

Where a change in IV effects the DV and results are measured/recorded

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17
Q

Types of experiment
Lab experiments
+ve and -ve

A

Takes place within controlled environment, researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV. High control of extraneous variables

+ve High contol means study can be replicated without introducing more extraneous variables

-ve Low mundane realism, tasks carried out by ppts in lab exp may not represent real life

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18
Q

Types of experiment
Field experiments
+ve and -ve

A

Takes place in natural setting, researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV

+ve Higher mundane realism than lab exp

-ve Ethical issue, ppts aware not be away they are being studied, no informed concent + invasion of privacy

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19
Q

Types of experiment
Natural experiments
+ve and -ve

A

IV changes without researcher’s influence, DV is simply recorded

+ve High external validity, involves study of real life issues as they happen - eg natural disaster on stress levels

-ve The situation may be rare in occurrence, limits ability to generalise results to other situations

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20
Q

Types of experiment
Quasi experiments
+ve and -ve

A

Iv is not manipulated but is based on existing differences between ppts, such as age

+ve Carried out under controlled conditions similar to lab exp

-ve Random allocation is not possible, may be confounding variables

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21
Q

Random sample

+ve and -ve

A

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

+ve free from researcher bias, researcher has no influence over who is selected, prevents them picking those who would support hypothesis

-ve more likely to produce sample that is not representative, Eg 20 females from ldn and 1 boy

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22
Q

Systematic sample

+ve

A

Every nth person is chosen from a list.

+ve Avoids researcher bias
+ve Provides representative data

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23
Q

Stratified sample

+ve and -ve

A

The proportions of people in population sub-groups (strata) are reflected in the sample.

+ve Made to accurately reflect groups within population, highly representative sample makes generalising results possible

-ve odentified strata can not reflect all the ways people are different, cant be perfectly representative

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24
Q

Opportunity sample

+ve and -ve

A

Whoever is available at the time of sampling will be included.

+ve Convenient as saves researcher time and effort less costly than random sampling eg

  • ve Results cant be generalised to whole pop as sample is drawn from one place eg street
  • ve Researcher has control over selection of participants, researcher bias as they wont select people they dont like the look of
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25
Q

Volunteer sample

+ve and -ve

A

Ppts self select through an ad eg

+ve Easy to obtain sample, minimal effort required from researcher, time efficient

-ve Volunteer bias is a problem - may attract certain type of people eg helpful, curious. Restricts how far results can be generalised

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26
Q

Define ethical issue

A

When a conflict arises between the rights and dignity of a ppt and the needs of the researcher to produce valid/worthwile data beneficial to society

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27
Q

Ethical issue + solution

Informed consent

A

Ppts should be made aware of the aims, procedures and their right to withdraw before agreeing to take part

If informed consent cant be obtained:
- get prior general, retrospective or presumptive consent

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28
Q

Presumptive consent

A

Similar group to research group is asked for consent, if they agree, research group’s consent is presumed

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29
Q

Prior general consent

A

Ppts are shown a list of studies to consent to, one which involves deception, by agreeing they are essentially agreeing to be deceived

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30
Q

Retrospective consent

A

Ppts are asked for consent during debriefing, once they have already taken part in study

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31
Q

Ethical issue + solution

Deception

A

Ppts should not deliberately be misled, some deception is acceptable

-full debrief is required at the end

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32
Q

Ethical issue + solution

Confidentiality

A

Participants’ anonymity and privacy must be respected

-names should not be recorded

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33
Q

Ethical issue + solution

Protection form harm

A

Participants should not be exposed to any more risk than they would be in everyday life.

-participants should be offered counselling as part of the debrief

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34
Q

Pilot study

A

Small scale version of the experiment/questionnaire/observation and will usually involve a small sample size

Allows researcher to identify issues in exp design, saving them time and money in large scale study

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35
Q

Single blind preocedure

A

Ppts are not made aware some of the details of the investigation, like what condition they are in to reduce demand characteristics

Attempts to control confounding effects of demand characteristics

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36
Q

Double blind procedure

A

The ppt nor the person conducting the study is made aware of the aim, to reduce demand characteristics + investigator effects

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37
Q

Controlled observation

+ve and -ve

A

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, some variables are manipulated

+ve Extraneous variables become less of a factor, replication of study becomes more possible

-ve Findings may not apply to everyday life, not generalisable to daily life

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38
Q

Covert Observation

+ve and -ve

A

Covert: behaviour observed without awareness/consent of ppt

+ve Low ppt reactivity, less chance of demand characteristics

-ve Ethically questionable as no consent for observation has been given

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39
Q

Participant Observation

A

Researcher may choose to take part in the observation with ppts, increases objectiveness

40
Q

Observational design

Structured observation

A

Only records behaviour in reference to pre-set behaviour list, can lead to key behaviours being missed/ignored

41
Q

Observational design

Un-structured observation

A

Observer records everything they see, this often can lead to too much data to record

42
Q

Effective behaviour categories for observations

A

Behavioural categories should be measurable, not overlap and avoid ‘dustbin categories’ within which many behaviours are recorded

43
Q

Observational design

Event/time sampling

A

Event: how often a behaviour occurs
- Useful for infrequent behaviour

Time: how often behaviour occurs within pre-established time
- May not represent whole behaviours

44
Q

Kinds of data
Qualitative
+ve and -ve

A

Non-numerical description of ppt’s thoughts and feelings

+ve Rich in detail, high external validity

-ve Hard to analyse, conclusions may be too subjective

45
Q

Self-report techniques

Questionnaires

A

Pre-set questions used to record thoughts and feelings towards a matter

46
Q

Self-report techniques

Open/closed questions

A

Open: no fixed range of answers, more detailed

Closed: Fixed range of answers, lacks detail

47
Q

Self-report technique

Structured interviews

A

Structured interview involves pre-set questions asked in a fixed order

Similar to questionnaires, but fewer respondents

48
Q

Self-report technique

Semi-structured interview

A

Some pre-set questions but follow up questions are allowed

49
Q

What should a questionnaire/interview not have

A

Questions should not include too much jargon, be leading or use emotive language, be double-barrelled or include double-negatives

50
Q

Types of closed questions

A

Likert scale
Rating scale
Fixed choice option

51
Q

Participant extraneous variables

Situational extraneous variables

A

Ppt variables: Age, gender, personality

Situation variables: Lighting, background noise, time of day

52
Q

Types of design
Independent groups
+ve and -ve

A

Two separate groups do two separate conditions in the experiment

+ve order effects are not a problem, ppts less likely to guess the aim

-ve Ppts in different groups are not the same, personality variables makes it unclear if the IV is the only thing affecting the DV
To control for this use random allocation

53
Q

Types of design
Repeated measures
+ve and -ve

A

All ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment

+ve Ppt variables are controlled for, this is also economically beneficial as less ppts are needed (less pay)

-ve Order affects may cause ppts to feel bored or fatigued by second task, this could affect performance

54
Q

Types of design
Matched pairs
+ve and -ve

A

Ppts are matched on a variable relevant to the experiment, pair is then split up, one in each group

+ve All ppts take part in one condiion, order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem

-ve Matching may be time consuming and expensive, more so if pre-tests are required

55
Q

Sampling techniques

A

Methods used to select people from the population

56
Q

Generalisation

A

Extent to which findings can be broadly applied to the population, high generalisability when sample is representative of population

57
Q

Naturalistic observation

+ve and -ve

A

Observing and recording behaviour in the setting within it would naturally occur, all aspects of the environment are free to vary

+ve High external validity, behaviour occurs naturally, results can be generalised to day-day life.

-ve Lack of control over research situation makes replication harder

58
Q

Investigator effects

A

The unconscious influence of the researcher on the research situation

59
Q

Non-participant observation

A

observer may remain separate from the group, increases objectivity

60
Q

Overt observation

+ve and -ve

A

Observing ppts with their knowledge

+ve Ethically acceptable, informed consent has been given

-ve Could lead to demand characteristics, behaviour and therefor results are affected

61
Q

Self-report technique

Un-structured interviews

A

General topic questions developed based on responses

More flexibility

62
Q

self-report design

Questionnaires

A

Likert scales, ranking scales, fixed choice option

63
Q

Kinds of data
quantitative
+ve and -ve

A

Data expressed numerically

+ve Easy to analyse, less bias

-ve Narrow in scope may miss out lots of detail

64
Q

Kinds of data
Primary
+ve and -ve

A

Collected first hand from the ppts by researcher for purpose of investigation

+ve High validity, targets relevant information

-ve Requires time and effort

65
Q

Kinds of data
Secondary
+ve and -ve

A

Collected and analysed by someone other that researcher who conducted experiment

+ve Inexpensive, easy to access data

-ve May be outdated and incomplete

66
Q

Descriptive stats - Measures of central tendency
Mean
+ve and -ve

A

All them all up, divide by number of categories/groups

+ve Most sensitive and representative of all results

-ve Easily distorted by anomalies

67
Q

Descriptive stats - Measures of central tendency
Median
+ve and -ve

A

The middle value

+ve Not affected by extreme values

-ve Less sensitive than the mean

68
Q

Descriptive stats - Measures of central tendency
Mode
+ve and -ve

A

Most frequently occurring result

+ve Easily to calculate

-ve Unrepresentative of all data

69
Q

Descriptive stats - Measures of dispersion
Range
+ve and -ve

A

Minus lowest value from highest (add one if they ask to account for numerical inaccuracies)

+ve Easy to calculate

-ve May be unrepresentative of data set

70
Q

Define generalisability

A

The extent to which findings can be broadly applied to the population

71
Q

Correlations

A

Mathematical technique where a researcher investigates an association between two variables – called co-variables

72
Q

Correlation coeffecient

A

Number between –1 - +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between two co-variables

73
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Things such as graphs, tables and summary statistics (measures of central tendency and dispersion). Used to identify trends and analyse sets of data

74
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Refers to the use of statistical tests

75
Q

Case studies

A

An in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, small group or institution

76
Q

Content analysis

A

Research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce through various media, for instance TV, emails and texts

77
Q

Reliability

A

Refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are

78
Q

Test-retest

A

Method of assessing reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions

79
Q

Inter-oberserver reliability

A

Extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour

80
Q

Validity

A

Extent to which an observed effect is genuine does u measure what it was supposed to measure (internal) and can it be generalised beyond the research setting within which it was found (external)

81
Q

Ecological validity

A

Extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other settings and situations

82
Q

Temporal validity

A

Extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to different periods in time and eras

83
Q

Face validity

A

Basic form of validity where the measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what is it supposed to

84
Q

Concurrent validity

A

Extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure

85
Q

Probability

A

Measure of the likelihood of a particular event occurring. 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 indicates statistical certainty

86
Q

Significance

A

Statistical term that tells us how sure we are of a difference or correlation existing. A significant result means the researcher can reject the null hypothesis

87
Q

Calculated value

A

A number resulting from calculating a statistical test

88
Q

Critical value

A

The numerical boundary between acceptance and rejection of a null hypothesis

89
Q

Paradigm

A

Set of shared assumptions and agreed methods. Within a scientific discipline

90
Q

Paragdim shift

A

Significant change in the dominant underlying theory within a scientific discipline

91
Q

Theory

A

Set of general laws or principals that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours

92
Q

Falsafiability

A

A principal stating a theory can not be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of it being proven false

93
Q

Replicability

A

Extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

94
Q

Objectivity

A

When all sources of personal bias are minimised to avoid distorting/influencing the research process

95
Q

Emperical method

A

Scientific approached that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience

96
Q

Calculated value is ≥ critical value

A
  • Chi squared
    − Spearman’s rho
    − Pearson’s R
    We accept alternative, reject null hypothesis
97
Q

Calculated value is ≤ critical value

A
  • Sign test
    − Mann Whiteney
  • Wilcoxon
    We accept alternative, reject null hypothesis

Psychology (5 decks)

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