Research methods Flashcards
what are the features of a science?
Objectivity - the research suggests…
Empirical method - data driven (numbers)
Replicability - same method can be repeated and same results will be found
Falsifiability - look for evidence against a theory instead of to support a theory
Hypothesis testing - (alternative / null / accept) ; make 2 hypothesis and look to reject one
Paradigms and paradigm shifts - theory=HO=reject theory=develop a new theory
what are the different types of experiment in psychology
lab experiment
field experiment
quasi experiment
natural experiment
what are the strengths of a lab experiment?
what are the limitations of a lab experiment?
strengths:
Isolation of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable means that cause and effect can be inferred with reasonable confidence.
Strict controls and well-documented procedures mean other researchers can quite easily repeat laboratory experiments to check the reliability of findings.
limitations:
The artificiality of the research context usually means participants do not demonstrate natural behaviour – this dramatically reduces ecological validity.
Demand characteristics are likely – participants will look to both the researcher and the research situation for information about how they are predicted to behave. They might then adjust their behaviour accordingly.
Laboratory experiments are impossible to use in situations where it would be inappropriate to manipulate the IV for practical or ethical reasons. For example, experiments in the real world such as on a street
what are the strengths and limitations of a field experiment?
External (ecological) validity is higher than in a laboratory experiment, due to the real world setting. This means that the researcher can generalise the research findings to other settings.
Demand characteristics are greatly variable compared to a laboratory experiment – if participants are unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.
limitations:
The researcher’s control over the variables reduces in the real world; more inaccuracy (later confounding) variables greatly reduce the validity of results.
If participants are unaware they are taking part they may become distressed by manipulations of the independent variable - it is difficult to gain fully informed results and to debrief them.
Because the researcher has no real control over the participants who take part samples may be variable (e.g. on age/gender) so population validity is reduced.
strengths and limitations of natural experiments
General strengths of natural experiments.
1. Natural experiments allow researchers to investigate topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to investigate using other experimental methods.
2. Ecological validity is extremely high compared to laboratory experiment. The researcher is able to study completely ‘real’ problems and phenomenon.
3. demand characteristics are greatly reduced compared to a laboratory experiment – if participants are unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.
General limitations of natural experiments.
1. There is no random allocation of participants; therefore participant variables are more likely to confound results in a natural experiment than a laboratory experiment.
2. The researcher has no control over the environment; extraneous (later confounding) variables greatly reduce the validity of results – they cannot be eliminated.
3. Ethical guidelines of informed consent, confidentiality and right to withdraw are breached if participants are unaware they are taking part in the research.
4. As the natural events psychologists wish to study are rare (even one-offs) it is often impossible to replicate the research to test findings for reliability.
strengths and limitations of using a questionnaire
They are highly replicable because it is easy to ensure procedures are the same for all participants – this allows researchers to check findings for reliability.
They are time (and therefore cost) efficient, as a large sample of participants can be reached quickly and easily; a large amount of data can be gained. Statistical analyses can therefore by used.
Investigator effects are reduced because researchers don’t need to be present to administer a questionnaire; this improves the validity of findings.
People may modify their answers to show themselves in the best light (dishonesty/social desirability bias); this reduces the validity of any subsequent findings.
Participant samples may be biased towards more literate people – this reduces validity and means the sample might be unrepresentative.
Because researchers are not always present, participants are unable to ask for help with unclear questions and may also miss sections/pages out.
what is correlational analysis?
Correlational analysis is a statistical technique used for investigating the strength of the relationship between two variables (co-variables); it can involve the researcher collecting two sets of secondary data.
The analysis will show either a positive correlation (as one variable increases, the other variable increases), a negative correlation (as one variable increases, the other variable decreases) or no correlation. If there is no correlation between two variable they are said to be uncorrelated.
strengths and limitations of correlational analysis?
Correlational analysis allows researchers to investigate topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to investigate experimentally.
Used as a starting point to assess patterns between variables before committing to an experimental study
Can be used to make predictions e.g how many ice creams sold on hot days
Correlation doesn’t mean causation It is impossible to establish cause and effect between variables – we can say that they are related but we do not know in which direction the relationship functions.
naccurate conclusions are commonplace. It might be that another untested variable is causing the relationship. This is known as the third variable problem
Correlations that seem high are not always statistically significant
what is content analysis?
A method of quantifying qualitative date through the use of coding unit and is commonly performed with media research. It involves the quantification of qualitative material. In other words, it is the numerical analysis of written words, pictures, verbal and visual communication.
limitation of content analysis?
The analysis might be subjective. Gender or cultural bias might be sources of subjectivity, which is a particular issue in thematic reviews (e.g. when coding for pro or anti social language.
what is a directional, non directional and a null hypothesis?
directional:
When a researcher has a good idea what is going to happen in a study (based on previous research) they will predict a specific outcome i.e. they will be specific about the direction of any differences in the way people behave.
non directional:
When a researcher is less sure what is going to happen in a study (i.e. findings could go either way) they will predict a more general outcome i.e. that there will be a difference in the way people behave, but not which direction this will be in.
null hypothesis:
When a researcher is confident that the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable they select a null hypothesis.
what is random sampling?
With this technique, every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
The researcher first obtains a list of everyone in the target population, and then uses a computerised random generator or the ‘names out of a hat’ technique to select the required amount of participants
what is opportunity sampling?
With this technique, the researcher selects anyone who is readily available and willing to take part. The researcher simply asks the people who it is most convenient for them to ask e.g. a researcher who also works as a university lecturer may ask students in their seminar group to participate in their study.
what is volunteer sampling?
With this technique, participants put themselves forwards for inclusion i.e. they self-select. The researcher places an initial advertisement in a magazine/newspaper, on the radio, on the internet/via email, or on a public notice board (e.g. a workplace/gym), asking for volunteers to take part in research. They may also place questionnaires somewhere public and ask people to return their answers
what is systemic sampling?
Every nth member of the target population is selected, for example every 5th pupil on a register. A sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population, organized into for instance, alphabetical order. A sampling system is nominated (every3rd, or 5th person, ect) or this internal may be determined randomly to reduce bias. The research then works through the sampling frame until sample is complete.
