Research Methods

Question 1

Define Independent Variable

Answer 1

This is the variable that the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect on the dependent variable. It may be divided into levels called experimental conditions. To provide a standard against which experimental conditions can be compared there may be a control condition where the IV is not manipulated at all.

Question 2

Define Dependent Variable

Answer 2

This is the variable that is being measured.

Question 3

Define Extraneous Variables

Answer 3

These are any variables other than the IV that could affect the DV.

Question 4

Define Confounding Variables

Answer 4

These are any variables other than the IV that have affected the DV.

Question 5

What is a Laboratory Experiment?

Answer 5

This is when an experiment is carried out in a controlled environment, such as a laboratory, allowing the researcher to exert a high level of control over the IV and eliminate any EV. The researcher can then observe and measure the change in DV caused by their manipulation of the IV.

Participants are usually randomly allocated to a condition. This means neither the experimenter nor the participants decided which condition the participant is placed in, an unpredictable method (such as flipping a coin) is used to decide.

Question 6

What are the advantages of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 6

1. The high level of control possible in a laboratory means that it is easy to control for any EV and prevent them from becoming CV.
2. As the researcher can manipulate the IV, they can establish a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV.
3. A well carried out laboratory experiment can be easily replicated by other researchers to see if similar results can be obtained. If the findings are similar to the original study then the results are reliable. (This means that the study can be conducted repeatedly with the same results being found each time which means the results are not due to chance or confounding variables).

Question 7

What are the disadvantages of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 7

1. There is a strong chance of demand characteristics (this is a type of EV where participants figure out what the experiment is about and so alter their behaviour).
2. By exerting a high level of control over the IV and extraneous variables, the experimental situation can lack mundane realism (the extent to which an experiment reflects real life). This means the study does not have ecological validity (the ability to generalise the findings of a piece of research to real life situations).

Question 8

What is a field experiment?

Answer 8

This is when an experiment is conducted in the real life world or in a natural setting, such as a classroom. The IV can still be manipulated or controlled to see its effect on the DV.

Question 9

What are the advantages of a of a field experiment?

Answer 9

1. There is more mundane realism and ecological validity than in a laboratory.
2. There is less chance of demand characteristics because in a field experiment the participants might not even be aware that they are taking part in research and so they will behave naturally.
3. Because the research can still manipulate the IV, a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV can be established.

Question 10

What are the disadvantages of a field experiment?

Answer 10

1. Field experiments may be far more difficult to replicate.
2. There is much less control over EV and so the effect on the DV may not be caused by the IV but by these EV. This means the research is not valid (it is not measuring what it intends to measure).
3. There is less control over the sample (this is who is taking part in the experiment).

Question 11

What is a Quasi experiment?

Answer 11

This is occurs when the researcher is not able to randomly allocate participants to different conditions of the experiment. This is usually because the IV is a quality of the participant (for instance, you may be comparing adults to children, or males to females).

Question 12

What is a Natural Experiment?

Answer 12

For this type of experiment, the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV to see its effect on the DV.

Question 13

What are the advantages of a natural experiment?

Answer 13

1. There is a high level of mundane realism and ecological validity.
2. It is very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the IV or sample in a laboratory or field experiment.

Question 14

What are the disadvantages of a natural experiment?

Answer 14

1. Less control over EV.
2. Difficult to replicate.
3. Far more difficult to determine cause and effect.

Question 15

What is an Observation?

Answer 15

An observation is when a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in whatever behaviour is being studied.

Question 16

What is a Non-Participant Observation?

Answer 16

This is when the researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants.

Question 17

What is a Participant Observation?

Answer 17

This is when the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants.

Question 18

What is a Covert Observation?

Answer 18

The psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity (that they are a psychologist observing the group). The psychologist may even give themselves a new identity and the group does not know that they are being observed.

Question 19

What is an Overt Observation?

Answer 19

The psychologist reveals their true identity and might also state that they are observing the group. This can mean that demand characteristics occur as participants could change their behaviour when they know they are being observed, leading to invalid results.

Question 20

What is a Naturalistic Observation?

Answer 20

A researcher observed participants in their own environment and there is no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable.

Example: a study conducted by Anderson. He observed children in a London park and noticed that it was very unusual for a child who was under three years of age to wander more than 200 metres from their mother.

Question 21

What are the advantages of a naturalistic observation?

Answer 21

1. Participants are usually unaware that they are being observed (covert observation) so there is a reduced chance of demand characteristics.
2. These studies have high mundane realism and ecological validity.
3. Naturalistic observations are useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical.

Question 22

What are the disadvantages of a naturalistic observation?

Answer 22

1. It is impossible to have any control over extraneous variables.
2. It is problematic to try to determine the cause of a behaviour because the variables are not manipulated.
3. There is a risk of observer bias.

Question 23

What is a Controlled Observation?

Answer 23

A researcher observes participants in a controlled environment and this allows for manipulation of the independent variable.

Example: Ainsworth and Bell’s stranger situation. They observed how infants responded to a carefully controlled sequence of events, such as the mother leaving their infant and a stranger attempting to comfort them.

Question 24

What are the advantages of a controlled observation?

Answer 24

1. Cause and effect can be determined.
2. Extraneous variables can be controlled for.
3. Rich and complex information is obtained.

Question 25

What are the disadvantages of a controlled observation?

Answer 25

1. Lower ecological validity.
2. Demand characteristics can occur as participants usually know they are being observed (overt observation).
3. There is a risk of observer bias.

Question 26

What is observer bias?

Answer 26

If the observer knows the purpose of the study, then they may see what they want to see. Observers need to reliable, one way to check this is to have two observers and see if their observations correlate with one another. This is known as inter-rater reliability.

Question 27

What are Self-Report Techniques?

Answer 27

Self report techniques are research methods in which participants give information about themselves without researcher interference.

Question 28

What is an Interview?

Answer 28

Interviews involves researchers asking questions in face-to-face situations.

Question 29

What is a Structured Interview?

Answer 29

All participants are asked the same questions in the same order. This provides quantitative data, which is data that can be counted or expressed numerically.

Question 30

What is an Unstructured Interview?

Answer 30

An informal in-depth conversational exchange between the interviewer and the interviewee. This provides qualitative date, non-numerical data that uses words to give a description of what people think and feel.

Question 31

What is a Semi-Structured Interview?

Answer 31

This type of interview combines a mixture of structured and unstructured techniques producing both quantitative and qualitative data.

Question 32

What are the advantages of interviews?

Answer 32

1. Complicated or sensitive issues are best dealt with in an interview.
2. If participants misunderstand a question this can be clarified in an interview.

Question 33

What are the disadvantages of interviews?

Answer 33

1. There is a risk of interviewer effects (when the interviewer may inadvertently affect respondent’s answers). This can be unintentional and may even be a result of the interviewer’s appearance, manner or gender.
2. There is also a risk of social desirability (when people lie to present themselves in a positive light, particularly when discussing issues that may be socially sensitive).
3. Training is needed for interviewers and the process can be time consuming and expensive.

Question 34

What is a Questionnaire?

Answer 34

Participants are given a written set of questions and instructions about how to record their answers. Questionnaires mainly focus on the individual’s behaviour, opinions, beliefs and attitudes.

Question 35

What are Closed Questions?

Answer 35

This type of questions require participants to answer yes/no or choose from fixed responses (quantitative data).

Question 36

What are Open Questions?

Answer 36

This type of question allows the participant to answer in their own words (qualitative data).

Question 37

What are the advantages of questionnaires?

Answer 37

1. It is quick, easy and relatively cheap to have a large sample and collect a large amount of data.
2. Questionnaires are time efficient because the researcher does not have to be present in order for the questionnaire to be completed.
3. Questionnaires are very easy to replicate and this means their reliability can be established.

Question 38

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires?

Answer 38

1. Questions can be ambiguous and the researcher is not there to explain so questions may be misunderstood or participants could misinterpret the questions.
2. Questionnaires can have a low response rate.
3. Questionnaires can have a biased sample as they are only suitable for people who can read and are willing and able to spend time on them. Certain types of people would be more willing to fill in questionnaires (e.g. people without busy careers) and so the sample may not be representative of the target population).

Question 39

What is Correlation?

Answer 39

Correlation is a technique for analysing the strength of the relationship between two quantitative variables, known in correlation as co-variables. The data for a correlation is usually obtained from a non-experimental source, such as a survey.

Question 40

What can a correlation show?

Answer 40

This analysis can show:

• Positive correlation: as a variable increases, the other increases.
• Negative correlation: as a variable increases, the other decreases.
• No correlation

Question 41

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 41

The strength of a correlation is known as the correlation coefficient.

The strength of a correlation can be between -1 and +1.
0 means there is no correlation.
-1 means a strong negative correlation.
+1 means a strong positive correlation.

Question 42

What are the advantage of correlational analysis?

Answer 42

1. This technique allows psychologists to establish the strength of the relationship between two variables and measure it precisely.
2. This technique also allows researchers to investigate things that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons.
3. Once a correlation has been conducted, predictions can be made about one of the variables based on what is known about the other variable.

Question 43

What are the disadvantages of correlational analysis?

Answer 43

1. Correlational analysis cannot determine cause and effect, we cannot tell which variable influences the other.
2. Even of there is a correlation between two variables, it may be the case that the variables are not actually related but there is a third unknown variable that influences both.
3. Correlation can only measure linear relationships and does not detect curvilinear relationships. This is when there is a positive relationship up to a certain point but after that the relationship becomes negative (or vice versa).