Research Methods Flashcards
Statistical testing
Used to determine the likelihood that a relationship has been found due to chance
It determines whether a hypothesis should be rejected or accepted
Spearman’s Rho
Use for testing correlation
When data is ordinal
Pairs of scores
Pearson’s R
Use when testing correlation
Data is interval
Pairs of scores
Mann-Whitney
Use when independent measures design
Data is ordinal
Testing for difference
Unrelated T-test
Use when independent measures design
Data is interval
When testing for difference
Wilcoxon
Use when repeated measures/matched pairs
When data is ordinal
Testing for difference
Related T-test
Used when repeated measures/matched pairs
When data is interval
To test for difference
Chi-Squared
Use when independent groups design
Data is nominal and data within each category is independent
Used to test for association/difference
Nominal Data
Represented in the form of CATEGORIES e.g small or tall
Participants cannot be in more than one category which makes the data discrete
It is the crudest and least informative type of data as it does not have a numerical result for each participant
Ordinal Data
Represents data in PLACE ORDER e.g 30 students would be numbered with the tallest being 30 and the smallest being 1
A strength is that the intervals are equal however the intervals are not equal between each unit
It is criticised as being based on subjective opinion rather than on objective measures
Interval Data
Based on STANDARDISED measurements e.g weight or time
The most informative and accurate data
Significance level
“p<0.05” means that the probability of the results occurring by chance is less than 5 times in 100
Null Hypothesis
States there is no difference/association between variables
Type One Error
When the researcher rejects the null hypothesis (accepts the alternative hypothesis) when in fact the effect is due to chance
Known as error of optimists
Type Two Error
When the researcher rejects the alternative hypothesis (or accepts the null hypothesis) when in fact the results occurred due to chance
Referred to as error of pessimists
One tailed test
Used when the hypothesis is DIRECTIONAL
If previous research has been conducted to suggest the direction of the results it is used
Two tailed test
Used when the hypothesis is NON-DIRECTIONAL
If no previous research has been done to suggest the direction of the research, a two tailed test is used
Case study
A detailed study about an individual or a group of individuals that is either LONGITUDINAL or RETROSPECTIVE
Strength and Weakness of a Case Study
It gives a lot of depth and understanding of the individual and allows us to investigate a situation that could not be set up for ethical reasons
If is difficult to replicate therefore it is difficult to say whether or not it is reliable. The findings can also not be generalised
Content Analysis
A technique of analysing qualitative data
It is an indirect way is studying behaviour by analysing the communications the individual has used such as texts or emails
It uses coding to get quantities data from qualities data
By identifying categories e.g. words or phrases, the researcher then goes through the communications and uses a tally chart to go through and look for examples
Evaluation of Content Analysis
It is easy to perform and doesn’t require contact with the participant
HOWEVER
It is descriptive and just not show the underlying reasons for the behaviours. Reasons may be attributed to the author which were not intended
Thematic Analysis
Involves assessing data to identify patterns within it. For example, a thematic analysis of the portrayal of the mentally ill in the press may involves looking at themes such as "they drain NHS resources". It has 6 stages: Familiarisation Coding Searching for themes Reviewing themes by collecting new data Defining and naming themes Writing up
Assessing Reliability
Test-Retest
Inter-observer reliability
Split-half method
Questionnaire
Test-retest
Tests for EXTERNAL reliability
It involves getting the same participants to perform he same tests after a time delay.
If the results are similar then the test would be deemed reliable
Inter-Observer Reliability
Used to assess the reliability of OBSERVATIONS
Could be measured by getting two observers the observe the phenomena
A strong correlation of scores (0.8) would suggest that the observation was reliable
Split-Half method
Tests for INTERNAL reliability
Involves splitting the test in half and if the results are similar on each side it is deemed reliable
Improving reliability
In observational research, the observer could gain more training
Or create a clear criteria for behaviours categories
Internal Validity
Whether or not it measures what it is suppose to measure i.e the effect of the IV on the DV
Reduced by demand characteristics and investigator effects
External Validity
Comprised of ecological and temporal validity:
ECOLOGICAL- the extent to which findings can be generalised to other situations and settings
TEMPORAL- whether findings can be generalised to other historical times and eras
Ways of assessing validity
Content Validity
Face Validity
Concurrent Validity
Content Validity
Involves independent experts assessing the validity of the measuring instrument concerned
Face Validity
Scrutinising a measure to determine whether it appears to measure what it intends to”on the face of it”
Concurrent Validity
Correlating the scores from the new procedure with an alternative for which validity has already been established
A positive correlation would suggest the procedure is valid
Improving Validity
INTERNAL=Single and double blind techniques
Single Blind- participants do not know which condition they are in
Double Blind- both participant and research do not know which condition participants are in
EXTERNAL= could use a variety of locations e.g Milgram
However, improving internal validity could come at the expense of the external validity
Sign Test
When using repeated measures
Data is nominal
Looking for difference
What is the experimental method?
Aims to determine cause and effect through the manipulation of variables
4 types of Experimental Methods
Lab experiment
Field experiment
Natural experiment
Quasiexperiment
Lab experiment
Takes place in carefully controlled conditions rather than the real world and the IV is manipulated
Strength: control of variables means you can see the effect of IV on DV
Weakness: due to the controlled conditions, it lacks ecological validity and cannot generalise findings
Field experiment
An experiment that is not done under carefully controlled conditions but in the real world and the IV is manipulated
Strength: due to it being in the real world it have ecological validity and the findings can be generalised
Weakness: it lacks control of variables so there may be other variables affecting the DV
Natural experiment
An experiment which the IV is NATURALLY OCCURRING and not manipulated
Strength: it allows the researcher to study situations which are unable to be set up for ethical reasons
Weakness: lacks control of variables which may affect the DV
Quasiexperiement
An experiment which the IV already exists e.g gender, age and the IV is not manipulated
Strength: it allows research of areas not available to set up for ethical reasons
Weakness: lacks control of variables
Self-Report Techniques
Involves participants being asked their own opinion beliefs or attitudes on a subject
Includes questionnaires and interviews
Questionnaire
Involves participants recording their answers to a set of written questions
Interview
Involves participants answering questions from the researcher verbally
Strengths and weakness of questionnaire
Strength:
People may feel more comfortable disclosing their beliefs rather than speaking verbally
Participants can answer without the investigator being present which reduces experimenter bias
Weakness:
If participants do not understand a question, they cannot ask someone and so may answer wrong. This can be a problem when analysing the data
Strength and weakness of interview
Strength:
If participants do no understand a question they can ask the researcher to explain which helps them answer correctly
Weakness:
Due to social desirability, participants are more likely to talk more favourably of themselves
Structured interview+evaluation
Researcher asks the participant a set of pre-determined questions in a fixed order
Strength: It can easily replicated which means it increases reliability
Weakness: Due to it having fixed questions, the researcher may not get as much insight which reduces validity
Unstructured interview+evaluation
This is like a conversation with the participant where the questions are not pre-determined on in a fixed order
Strength: Due the researcher being able to get more of an insight, it improves the validity
Weakness: It is difficult to replicate which reduces the reliability
Correlation
A method of studying the association/relationship between 2 variables
Due to not manipulating variables, it does not infer cause and effect
Data is displayed on a scattergram
Correlational analysis involves working out the extent of the relationship through finding the co-efficient
Strength and weakness of correlations
Strength: It is an ethical way or research as it does not require manipulating variables
Weakness: Due to not manipulating variables, it is unable to find cause an effect as it is not certain which variable impacts the other
Co-Variables
The variables studied in a correlation
They are not referred to as IV and DV because the study looks for the relationship between rather than cause and effect
What is an observation? Name the 6 types
An observation involves watching and recording behaviour e.g. how children play Naturalistic Controlled Overt Covert Participant Non-Participant
Naturalistic observation + evaluation
Watching and recording behaviour in real world situations
Strength: People are likely to behave how they normally would+there are low demand characteristics
Weakness: There is a lack of control of extraneous variables which may affect the results
Controlled Observation + Evaluation
Observation done in a structured environment e.g. Strange situation
Strength: Control over extraneous variables
Weakness: Lacks ecological validity
Covert observation + evaluation
The participants do not know and have not given consent to being observed
Strength: Validity will be increased as the participants will act naturally
Weakness: it is unethical as participants haven’t given consent to be watched and observed
Overt observation + evaluation
Participants do know and have given their consent to be observed and recorded
Strength: It is ethical as consent is given
Weakness: the validity decreases as the participants may not act natural
Participant observation and evaluation
Where the researcher becomes a member of the group they are watching and recording
Strength: The investigator can get more of an insight which increases validity
Weakness: the researcher may lose their objective and ‘go native’ by becoming more like the participants than the researcher
Non-Participant observation + evaluation
The researcher does not become a member of the group being observed
Strength: The researcher can retain their objectivity and be impartial
Weakness: It may lack validity because they cannot achieve as much of an insight
Aim
A general stat,net about the purpose of a piece of research e.g to see the effect of caffeine on memory
Hypothesis
A clear and precise statement about the research with operationalised variables
Directional Hypothesis vs Non-Directional
Directional hypothesis states the direction of the results
Non-directional does not predict the direction of the results
Extraneous vs confounding
Extraneous is any variable other than the IV that could affect the DV if it is not controlled
Confounding variable is an uncontrolled variable that HAS affected the results
Independent and Dependent variable
Independent: manipulated to see the effect with will have on the DV
Dependent: affected by the IV
Demand Characteristics
Features of a piece of research that enables the participants to work out the aim/hypothesis
Participants may then change their behaviour to frustrate the aim
This is more likely in repeated measures swing and when repeating historical research
Investigator affects
When the researches behaviour characteristics influence the research in some way; this includes the presence of the researcher
For example, the researcher may expect a certain result and therefore unconsciously communicate this to the participant by smiling at a right answer
Randomisation vs Standardisation
Randomisation: the use of chance when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions
Standardisation: involves giving the participants the exact same instructions and procedures in a research study
3 types of experimental designs
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
Independent groups + evaluation
The participants are either in the control or the experimental condition
Strengths:
-There are no order effects so there will be no improvement
-The same test np an be used for both groups
Weakness:
-There are difference people in each groups therefore one group may be better than the other naturally
-Requires more participants
Repeated measures
Involves all participants experiencing both conditions
Strengths:
-There are no participant variables as participants take part in both conditions
-Requires less participants
Weaknesses:
-There are order effects as having done the test once, they may be better a second time
-Two tests would be needed
Matched pairs
Participants in one condition is matched with a participant in the other condition as closely as possible e.g age or gender
Strength:
-There are no order effects or participant variables
Weakness:
Participants can never be matched exactly therefore there will be participant variables
What is a peer review?
The process by which a psychological research papers are subject to independent scrutinising by other psychologists working in a similar field; before publication.
It is considered in terms of its validity, significance and originality
Evaluation of a peer review
Strengths:
-It is difficult for the researcher to spot every mistake in their research
-It ensures research will be taken seriously because it has been scrutinised by other researchers
Weaknesses:
-Bias can influence whether the research is published
-If the research is not consistent with previous findings, it is less likely to be published. For example, Garcia and Koellings work on classical conditioning wasn’t published but later was found to be true
Ethical Issues
Informed consent
Right to withdraw
Confidentiality
Protection from harm
Resolving ethical issues
Right to withdraw: Participants should be reminded of their right to withdraw before the research begins and also if they shown signs of distress during procedure
Confidentiality: Participants details should remain private and any identifiable details should not be published
