Research Methods

Question 1

How is the IV and DV operationalised in both lab + field experiments?

Answer 1

IV: Operationalised through the manipulation of the experimenter

DV: Operationalised through the scores collected from an experiment

Question 2

Who decides the allocation of participants to the IV for both lab and field experiments?

Answer 2

Experimenter decides this: Participants may experience all of some levels of the IV

Question 3

What are lab experiments?

Answer 3

A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions. The variable which is being manipulated by the researcher is called the independent variable and the dependent variable is the change in behaviour measured by the researcher.

Question 4

Can a control group be present in both lab and field experiments?

Answer 4

Yes. The control group may be present to give comparisons; They won’t experience the IV

Question 5

What is the environment like in a lab and field experiment?

Answer 5

Lab experiment: artificial. The experimenter controls all parts of the environment.

Field experiment: Natural. The experimenter doesn’t control all parts. Things like temperature, noise, light, etc. are very hard to control

Question 6

What is the cause and effect relationship like in a lab and field experiment?

Answer 6

Lab: Strong

Field: Fairy Strong, but not as strong as a lab experiment

Question 7

Does a hypothesis differ for lab and field experiments?

Answer 7

No.

The experimenter makes predictions about what they expect to find.

Question 8

Do lab / field experiments have ecological validity?

Answer 8

Lab: No

Field: Yes

Question 9

Do lab / field experiments have internal validity?

Answer 9

Lab: Yes

Field: No

Question 10

What is meant by Predictive Validity?

Answer 10

Whether the findings predict future performance

Question 11

Do lab / field experiments have predictive validity?

Answer 11

Lab: Yes (?)

Field: Yes

Question 12

Are lab / field experiments objective?

Answer 12

Lab: Yes (?)

Field: Yes (?)

Question 13

Can demand characteristics influence the results of a lab / field experiment?

Answer 13

Lab: Yes

Field: No

Question 14

Can experimenter effects influence the results of a lab / field experiment?

Answer 14

Lab: Yes

Field: No

Question 15

What are the 3 types of Experimental Design?

Answer 15

Independent Measures
Repeated Measures
Matched Pair

Question 16

What happens during the Independent Measures Design?

Answer 16

Each participant experiments one level of the IV.

Question 17

What happens during the Repeated Measures Design?

Answer 17

All participants take part in each condition/ the same conditions of the experiment

Question 18

What happens during the Matched Pairs Design?

Answer 18

Participants experiment one level of the IV. Another participant with the same characteristics (e.g. age, sex, intelligence, etc.) experience the other level.

Question 19

What are the Advantages of an Independent Measures Design?

Answer 19

Ppts Needed: Each participant experiments one level of the IV. More participants are required for two separate groups.
(Generalisable)

Time Taken: Participants only carry out 1 level of the IV
(Quick)

Demand Characteristics: Participants only experience one level of the IV, meaning a less likely chance of developing demand characteristics
(Not a Problem)

Order Effects: Participants only experience one level of the IV, meaning they can’t develop order effects
(Not a Problem)

Question 20

What are the Disadvantages of an Independent Measures Design?

Answer 20

Participant Variables/Characteristics:
Participants with certain characteristics (e.g. high IQ) may be placed in the same group, which will have an effect on results
(Problem)

Question 21

What are the Advantages of a Repeated Measures Design?

Answer 21

Participant Variables/Characteristics:
Participants do all parts of the experiment, meaning they will have an effect on all findings
(Not a Problem)

Question 22

What are the Disadvantages of a Repeated Measures Design?

Answer 22

Ppts Needed:
Less recruitment for participants is necessary
(Not Generalisable)

Time Taken:
Participants have to do all levels of the DV
(Slow)

Demand Characteristics:
Participants redo the experiment, but with a different level of the IV. This makes it likely for them to develop demand characteristics
(Problem)

Order Effects:
Participants redo the experiment, so they may become better or worse at the task
(Problem)

Question 23

What are the Advantages of a Matched Pair Design?

Answer 23

Ppts Needed:
More participants required for the matched characteristics for both groups
(Generalisable)

Participant Variables/Characteristics:
Participant variables will be the same for all levels of the IV
(Not a Problem)

Demand Characteristics:
Participants only experience one level of the IV, meaning a less likely chance of developing demand characteristics
(Not a Problem)

Order Effects:
Participants only experience one level of the IV, meaning they can’t develop order effects
(Not a Problem)

Question 24

What are the Disadvantages of a Matched Pair Design?

Answer 24

Time Taken:
The experimenter must spend time finding participants with the same characteristics
(Very Slow)

Question 25

What is Qualitative Data?

Answer 25

Qualitative data refers to any information from the participants in the form of prose, rather than numerical data.

Question 26

Give an example to when qualitative data may be used.

Answer 26

Cognitive psychologists may gather qualitative data through case studies of patients with brain damage that led to memory loss.

Question 27

How is qualitative data tested?

Answer 27

Qualitative data doesn’t propose a hypothesis, but instead explores a research question.
The answer to the question is slowly formed as information is decoded.

Question 28

How is qualitative data collected?

Answer 28

Information can be collected in a variety of ways (e.g. interviews, open-ended questions), and common themes are noted down.

Question 29

Why is qualitative data gathered?

Answer 29

To gain a deeper insight into an individual’s experience, feelings and beliefs.

Question 30

What are the advantages of qualitative data, in terms of detail?

Answer 30

Qualitative data gives rich, detailed data – which may be missed by quantitative data – making results more valid

Qualitative data goes beyond describing discourse; it’s a process of comprehending information, synthesising the material and theorising about why the themes exist

Question 31

Why is qualitative data used when exploring big issues?

Answer 31

Qualitative data is extremely important when investigating important issues – these big questions could not be addressed using a questionnaire – as this couldn’t properly address people’s deeply held feelings + beliefs

Question 32

Why is qualitative data unreliable?

Answer 32

Qualitative data doesn’t follow any particular standardised procedure – results may not be the same when replicated – it lacks reliability

Qualitative data can be interpreted differently, increasing subjectivity – people may not view the results the same – it lack reliability

Question 33

What is a disadvantage of qualitative data (other than reliability)?

Answer 33

Qualitative data is laborious and difficult to conduct, because data analysis + transcription takes a lot of time

Question 34

Why are the case studies of brain damaged patients important in cognitive psychology?

Answer 34

They have been critical to cognitive psychology in order to investigate how brain injury affects cognitive functioning.

Sometimes we can understand cognitive functions, such as memory, more in their absence, as is the case in brain-damaged patients

Question 35

How did the qualitative data from HM’s case help himself, and cognitive psychology?

Answer 35

During his life, HM was interviewed many times- this qualitative information has informed an understanding of which cognitive function were still intact, and which were impaired.

Extra Info: HM’s brain was gifted to psychological research; it was spliced into 2000+ segments to map the human brain at the brain Observatory in San Diego

Question 36

What methods of investigation do Cognitive Psychologists typically use?

Answer 36

They typically use experiments to investigate human mental processing. They also use case studies of brain-damaged patients to understand how injury can be linked to cognitive deficits

Question 37

What is a Target Population?

Answer 37

In an investigation researchers are trying to find out about a certain group of people, this could be for example, human beings in general (Milgram). This is called the target population

Question 38

What is a Sample?

Answer 38

It is impossible to interview or test every single person in that population, so they have to select a group of people that represent that population. This is called the sample or participants.

Question 39

Why is it important that the Sample is similar to the Population?

Answer 39

It is important that the sample is similar in characteristics to the target population so that sample is representative. This means the findings are generalisable.

Question 40

What is Opportunity Sampling?

Answer 40

This technique uses people from target population available at the time and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.

The researcher will stand in a particular location and recruit participants as they pass.

The people who agree become their sample, and they wait until they have sufficient participants.

Question 41

Are opportunity samples Quick to conduct?

Answer 41

Yes

They just find the closest people who will agree to do it, and no planning is involved.

Question 42

Are opportunity samples Representative?

Answer 42

To an extent

They don’t all share similar characteristics, like how volunteer samples would (for example)

Question 43

Do opportunity samples Consist of Keen Participants?

Answer 43

No, but they’re likely to drop out

Since participants have been selected rather than sign up they may not have an interest in completing research so they may drop out part of the way through the study causing issues with the results

Question 44

Are opportunity samples Practical?

Answer 44

Yes, they will obtain enough ppts

Practical as provided the researcher stands in a busy place they should find sufficient participants to take part and they can remain there until they do.

Question 45

What is Self Selecting Sampling also known as?

Answer 45

Volunteer Sampling

Question 46

What is Self Selecting Sampling?

Answer 46

Participants become part of a study because they volunteer when asked by the researcher.

The researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or magazine explaining the research.

The researcher will wait for people to contact them via phone/ email.

Once a sufficient number have contacted them they have the sample for their research.

Question 47

Are self selecting samples Quick to conduct?

Answer 47

No

They have to wait until a sufficient amount of people agree to do the study

Question 48

Are self selecting samples Representative?

Answer 48

No

May lead to an unrepresentative sample as participants are likely to be keen and perhaps interested in the topic since they have volunteered and might not be representative of society.

Question 49

Do self selecting samples Consist of Keen Participants?

Answer 49

Yes

Participants may be very keen since they have volunteered making demand characteristics more likely since they are more motivated to work out the aim of research and perhaps altered their behaviour.

Question 50

Are self selecting samples Practical?

Answer 50

Maybe

They are likely to obtain enough participants, but it may be difficult in some cases.

Question 51

What is Random Sampling?

Answer 51

In this technique, everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected. A random number generator from a computer programme can be used to select participants from a list.

A sampling frame / list of the population is needed for example the electoral role.

Question 52

Are random samples Quick to conduct?

Answer 52

Yes

Fairly quick and easy as the researcher simply needs a sampling frame such as the electoral role and they can select participants. These resources are readily available and little planning is needed

Question 53

Are random samples Representative?

Answer 53

Should be representative as the laws of probability dictate the sample should be roughly similar to the population in terms of gender, age, ethnicity.

Question 54

Do random samples Consist of Keen Participants?

Answer 54

Since participants have been selected rather than sign up they may not have an interest in completing research so they may drop out part of the way through the study causing issues with the results

Question 55

Are random samples Practical?

Answer 55

Practical as if those chosen do not respond then they can use the random name generator to select a new participant until they have enough.

Question 56

What is Stratified Sampling?

Answer 56

In this technique the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population, for example make / female, young old (relevant characteristics chosen).

Then they work out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative for example, 50% male and 50% female.

They use a random number generator from a computer programme to select people from a sampling frame / list e.g. the electoral role.

They select their sample using the results of this, ensuring they have the right proportions of everyone

Question 57

Are stratified samples Quick to Conduct?

Answer 57

No

Time consuming as the researcher must work out the characteristics of the population and then select an appropriate sample so planning is involved. This might be a long process as particular genders / ages / ethnicities might be difficult to find.

Question 58

Are stratified samples Representative?

Answer 58

Yes

They highly represent the demographics of the total population.

Question 59

Do stratified samples Consist of Keen Participants?

Answer 59

No, but they may drop out

Since participants have been selected rather than sign up they may not have an interest in completing research so they may drop out part of the way through the study causing issues with the results

Question 60

Are stratified samples Practical?

Answer 60

No

It may be difficult to obtain a sufficient number of participants with the appropriate characteristics who agree to take part in the research, making this method impractical

Question 61

What are the Types of Interviews?

Answer 61

Structured Interview
Semi-Structured Interview
Unstructured Interview

Question 62

What is a Structured Interview?

Answer 62

Researcher uses a list of previously planned questions in a set order. Often these have a list of tick box answers to choose from, however they can include open questions
The interview may be recorded on videotape, audiotape or written down.

The experimenter cannot add any more questions once in the interview.

The experimenter cannot change the wording of the question if the interviewee does not understand.

Question 63

Do Structured interviews use qualitative or quantitative data?

Answer 63

Quantitative (sometimes qualitative)

Question 64

Are Structured Interviews Reliable?

Answer 64

Yes

Has good reliability as if repeated, exactly the same questions can be asked

Has good inter-rater reliability as researchers will use the same questions leading to consistency in results

Question 65

Are Structured Interviews Valid?

Answer 65

No

May lack validity as it is difficult for the researcher to build a rapport (relationship) therefore the participant may not relax and give truthful information.

Question 66

Are Structured Interviews Objective?

Answer 66

Yes

Allows for objective quantitative data when analysed. Researchers opinion cannot affect interpretation of tick box answers

Question 67

What are Semi-Structured Interviews?

Answer 67

A semi-structured interview is where there might be some preset questions that the interviewer asks and interviewee answers.

The interviewer can deviate from those questions and make some up if they want. The interviewer can change the wording of the question if the interviewee does not understand.

The interview might be recorded on video tape, audio tape or the answers may be written down.

Question 68

Do Semi-Structured Interviews use qualitative data or quantitative data?

Answer 68

Uses a mixture

Question 69

Are Semi-Structured Interviews Reliable?

Answer 69

No

Has poor test-retest reliability as if repeated, questions will vary slightly

Has poor inter-rater reliability as researchers will use different questions leading to inconsistency in results

Question 70

Are Semi-Structured Interviews Valid?

Answer 70

Yes

Good validity as the researcher can build a rapport (relationship) therefore the participant will relax and give truthful information.

Question 71

Are Semi-Structured Interviews Objective?

Answer 71

No

The answers to some questions may be subjective to interpret. The researchers’ opinion may affect how they view the meaning.

Question 72

What are Unstructured Interviews?

Answer 72

An unstructured interview is when there are no preset questions ready prepared for the interviewer to ask.

The interviewer will have a topic which they want the interviewee to talk about but the questions will be made up as they go along.

The interviewer can change the wording of the questions if the interviewee does not understand.

The interviewer will ask new questions depending on what the interviewee says and what is considered interesting.

An unstructured interview is similar to an informal conversation

Question 73

Do Unstructured Interviews use qualitative or quantitative data?

Answer 73

Qualitative data.

Question 74

Are Unstructured Interviews Reliable?

Answer 74

No
Has poor test-retest reliability as if repeated, questions will vary slightly

Has poor inter-rater reliability, as researchers will use different questions leading to inconsistency in results

Question 75

Are Unstructured Interviews Valid?

Answer 75

Yes

Good validity as the researcher can build rapport (relationship). Therefore the participant will relax and give truthful
information.

Question 76

Are Unstructured Interviews Objective?

Answer 76

No

Highly subjective to interpret the answers to questions. Also the researcher can affect the results by asking biased
questions.

Question 77

What are Questionnaires?

Answer 77

Questionnaires involve asking people questions about a specific topic (usually on paper).

Questions must be related to a specific aim/hypothesis – ethically, a researcher should not ask for unnecessary information.

There are a number of formats for asking questions

Question 78

What are the Advantages of Questionnaires?

Answer 78

Quick method for gathering a large amount of data – once the researcher has written the questionnaire, it can be given to large sample very quickly.

Very reliable method as questions are listed in a fixed order and with exactly the same wording for each participant.

Question 79

What are the Disdvantages of Questionnaires?

Answer 79

Time consuming to write as the order and wording of the questions needs to be planned carefully in order to avoid researcher bias (e.g. leading questions).

Socially desirable answers are common as people want to present themselves in a favourable way – produces invalid results.

Difficult to obtain a 100% response rate as participants may not return the questionnaire or not bother answering some questions.

Question 80

What are Closed Questions?

Answer 80

Closed questions provide participants with a number of options and asks them to choose one that represents their view.

Question 81

What are some Examples of Closed Questions?

Answer 81

Likert scale
A rating scale
Identifying characteristics

Question 82

What is a Likert scale?

Answer 82

A Likert scale provides a statement to which participants Rate their opinion

(such as 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral , 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree or 5= very likely/ 1= very unlikely).

Question 83

What is a Rating Scale?

Answer 83

Asks participants to rate themselves on a specific scale e.g. 1-10.

Question 84

What is meant by Identifying Characteristics?

Answer 84

Provides participants with a number of personal characteristics and asks them to circle one that represents their view.

Question 85

What are the Advantages of Closed Questions?

Answer 85

Answers are reliable – i.e. replies are easy to compare and can be compared in the same way by different researchers.

The researcher can be objective i.e. analyse participants answers without using their own judgement or interpretations .

Question 86

What are the Disadvantages of Closed Questions?

Answer 86

Can lead to invalid answers as the participant is forced to choose one of the stated options. They may have wanted to provide a different answer.

Can be time consuming for the researcher to write as a range of closed options should be provided. This requires some research and understanding of the most common responses.

Question 87

What are Open Questions?

Answer 87

Provides with the space to write their own answer to a question – no options are provided.

Question 88

What are the Advantages of Open Questions?

Answer 88

Answers are valid as participants are free to answer as they wish and may write in depth about their behaviour.

Participants may give unique answers that the researcher wouldn’t have included in closed

Question 89

What are the Disadvantages of Open Questions?

Answer 89

Participants may misunderstand the question and provide an invalid answer

The researcher has to be subjective i.e. use their own judgement or interpretation to analyse participants answers.

Question 90

What should be regarded when Designing a Questionnaire?

Answer 90

Straight forward questions should be stated at the beginning to encourage participants to answer.

Questions about personal details (age/gender/ethnicity) should be stated at the end so as not to bore the participants.

Questions should be varied so as to avoid response bias (the tendency of the participant to stick to one response throughout their answer).

A pilot survey should be carried out before the main research to check the questions are worded clearly, and that the answers given are relevant to the researchers

Question 91

What is Quantitative Data?

Answer 91

Quantitative data refers to information in a numerical or statistical form. It is data that is more likely to be drawn from controlled situations such as laboratory experiments. It deals with ‘what’ rather than ‘why’ in research.

For example the percentage of people that obeyed Milgram and administered electric shocks is quantitative data.

Question 92

What could Quantitative Data Include?

Answer 92

Quantitative data could include descriptive statistics involving central tendency – mean/median/mode.

Or it could include data that has been represented using graphs/pie charts so that comparison can be drawn.

Question 93

What is Qualitative Data?

Answer 93

Qualitative data refers to information regarding information written in detailed description, words or even images. Qualitative data deals with “why” rather than “what” in research.

For example, Milgram interviewed his participants to find out why they went so far on the shock generator (this was qualitative data).

Question 94

What does Qualitative Data Include?

Answer 94

This might include information gathered from open questions from interviews or questionnaires, or from case studies or research in real world settings.

Qualitative data includes information that will need to be assessed for themes. These themes will then be used to make conclusions of the findings of the psychological topic.

Question 95

Is Qualitative / Quantitative Data Objective?

Answer 95

Qualitative: It is Subjective as it has to be analysed for themes and different researchers may give different interpretations

Quantitative: It is Objective as researchers can’t have personal interpretations of numerical data

Question 96

Is Qualitative / Quantitative Data Reliable?

Answer 96

Qualitative: Doesn’t use operationalised variables, and so it’s harder to replicate and check for reliability

Quantitative: uses operationalised variables making it easier to replicate the study and thus check for reliability

Question 97

Is Qualitative / Quantitative Data Superficial, or Valid?

Answer 97

Qualitative: May produce more rich detailed type of information with access to emotions and feelings behind behaviour making it more valid
Are conducted in more natural circumstances tend to produce more ecologically valid data as they are real life situations

Quantitative: May produce limited information with low/no access to emotions and feelings behind behaviour, making it less valid
Quantitative data may produce narrow, unrealistic information which only focuses on small fragments of behaviour and therefore is not valid

Question 98

What is another Weakness to Qualitative Data?

Answer 98

Does not allow for easy comparisons as each participant will have very individual data.

Question 99

What are other Strengths to Quantitative Data?

Answer 99

Quantitative data gives statistical data which can be further tested to see how far the results are due to chance using inferential statistics

It can also be easily represented in graphs and charts for easier analysis and comparisons than qualitative data

Question 100

What is a Thematic Analysis?

Answer 100

Recording themes, patterns or trends within data

Question 101

What are the two approaches to a thematic analysis?

Answer 101

Inductive approach

Deductive approach

Question 102

What is an Inductive Thematic Analysis?

Answer 102

The researcher would read and reread the qualitative data gathered, and themes would emerge from the data without the researcher imposing any of their own ideas/expectations from it.

Question 103

What is a Deductive Thematic Analysis?

Answer 103

The researcher specifies themes that they will look for before analysing the data

Question 104

What is the Overall Procedure of a Thematic Analysis?

Answer 104

It involves carefully reading + considering the qualitative data gathered, and identifying the themes present in the data that occur frequently or seem to be a key feature of the data.

How frequent/central to the text the theme is depends on the opinion of the researcher, and the nature of the material analysed.

The researcher then develops these themes to ‘codes’ which represent the categories of themes found.

The research will then use these codes to analyse the data gathered and search for instances where it appears in the data.

This is reviewed continually, and changed if necessary, until the themes can be stated, supported and used as a summary of the data.

Question 105

What is the weakness of analysing qualitative data?

Answer 105

Using thematic analysis or other forms of qualitative analysis is often seen as unscientific, as the themes are highly dependent on subjective opinions

Question 106

What is the strength of analysing qualitative data?

Answer 106

Qualitative analysis does yield far more detailed + meaningful information than quantitative data

Question 107

When was social psychology developed?

Answer 107

In the mid-19th century…
… as there was a desire to understand the collective or group mind.

Experimental social psychology (studying human behaviour in controlled conditions) grew in the 20th century

Question 108

What are the Reasons For animal research?

Answer 108

Large samples can be bred in short time frames.
When investigating characteristics across generations, it takes a relatively shorter time
e.g. rats are used because of the speed they produce offspring (22 days)

Animals don’t have any demand characteristics

There is a higher degree of control
You can isolate variables from animals much easier than for humans

Although unnecessary pain must be avoided, pain + distress is permitted
Correct housing + treatment is provided

It gives valid information on human processes
We are able to generalise findings to some extent

Animal research has provided significant insight into vital areas of medical research- including drug treatments, transplants, surgical techniques + cloning
It has made significant contributions to our knowledge of the brain + nervous system
Conditioning techniques have been used successfully in therapeutic settings
Utilitarian Argument: animal research is justified, as it helps a significant amount of people

Question 109

What are the Reasons Against animal research?

Answer 109

Animal Research is not credible and lacks ecological validity
Animal research occurs in labs

Too many differences between human + animals
Antropomorphism - Where animals are mistakenly attributed with human qualities

Animals and Humans are too Different
There are differences in genetic makeup; and human behaviour + thought is subject to a lot more variables (e.g. culture, social norms, language)

The benefits aren’t known until the end
It is possible that their study has little effect

You can’t do animal research just for curiosity
Animal procedures will not be granted, unless the researcher can justify the costs in relation to the likely benefits of the research

Question 110

Why is there Legislation on Animal Research?

Answer 110

Psychologists using animals in their research are allowed to cause a lot more harm and suffering than would be acceptable/legal when using human ppts.

However there are laws that protect certain animals from excessive/unnecessary harm. These animals are offered some legal protection because they are considered to be capable of pain and suffering

Question 111

What are the 2 types of Animal Research Legislation?

Answer 111

The Scientific Procedures Act (1986)

Home Office Regulations

Question 112

What is The Scientific Procedures Act (1986)?

Answer 112

Psychologists must follow regulations when carrying out procedures that might result in pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm to a certain list of animals

This act allows the use of animals in invasive research, such as manipulating genes, using poisonous substances, and making incisions in animals bodies or brains. The studies must offer some advancement in medicine, veterinary science or education.

When keeping and caging the protected animals for research, they must follow the Animal Welfare Act (2006) to ensure satisfactory living conditions are met.

They must also ensure animals are sourced/brought from ethical breeders, identified accurately and killed humanely after research if necessary

Question 113

What animals are protected within the Scientific Procedures Act (1986)?

Answer 113

Psychologists must follow regulations within this act when conducting research on a list of “protected animals”.

This includes:

1. All non-human vertebrates (animals with a spine and brain like rats, dogs, monkeys, cats, fish, dolphins, birds, etc)
2. One invertebrate species (octopus – because they’re highly intelligent and so can experience suffering)

Question 114

What are the Home Office Regulations?

Answer 114

If the researcher wishes to use animals in their study, they must apply for a license from the Home Office. They can only carry out the research once they have received approval. In order for a license to be granted, certain criteria must be met.

Question 115

What are the 3 Types of Criteria that must be met wishing Home Office Regulations?

Answer 115

1. Cost-Benefit Analysis:
   The cost to the animal must be outweighed by the potential benefits of research. This will be determined by an ethics review panel
2. The “Three R’s”: The researcher must show they have fully considered them
3. Three separate licences must be obtained

Question 116

What are the “Three R’s” researchers have to fully consider when carrying out an animal study?

Answer 116

Replacing animals with non-animal alternatives. (Eg computers, or even less sentiment animals)

Reducing the numbers of animals used to the minimum required to achieve a result

Refining procedures to minimise suffering

Question 117

What are the 3 separate licences psychologists need to carry out an animal study?

Answer 117

A personal license for each person carrying out procedures on animals

A project license for the program of work/the particular study

An establishment license for the price at which the work is carried out

Question 118

How is Qualitative + Quantitative data obtained?

Answer 118

Quantitative: can be counted / expressed numerically, but is concerned with words, texts, ideas + themes

Qualitative: cannot be expressed numerically, but is concerned with words, texts ideas and themes

Question 119

How is Tallying used?

Answer 119

Observers write down when and how many times certain behaviours occurred.

They may also take notes during the observation session, and review them later to try to determine behavioural patterns from the motes. Alternatively, they may also use audio / video recordings.

Question 120

What Conditions should occur for Observations?

Answer 120

They must be clear and ambiguous

In larger scale studies, observers need training to ensure they understand the operational definitions of behavioural changes.

Training + standardisation of observers is important where more than one observer is making an assessment

Question 121

Why do researchers use Samples in Human Research?

Answer 121

Due to the potential volume of data to be recorded, researchers often use sampling to gather information. This can be time sampling or event sampling.

Question 122

What is Time Sampling?

Answer 122

Making observations at Different Time Intervals.

e.g. every 30 seconds, and recording what is observed

Question 123

What is a Problem with Time Sampling?

Answer 123

It may not always be representative, as certain behaviours can be missed if they are only recorded at certain times.

Question 124

What is Event Sampling?

Answer 124

Recording a Certain Behaviour every time it happens

e.g. Ticking a box every time someone displays a particular behaviour

Question 125

What is a Problem with Event Sampling?

Answer 125

If too many instances of the behaviour happen at once, the researcher may not be able to record all instances

Question 126

What are Naturalistic Observations?

Answer 126

These involve observing the behaviour of ppts within their own environment.

The situation has not been created by the researcher and so allows them to gain a real insight into a person’s behaviour

Question 127

What are Structured Observations?

Answer 127

Stages observations that are normally carries out within an environment in which the researcher has some control (e.g. lab).

Subsequent behaviour can be observed behind a one-way screen

Question 128

Are Structured / Naturalistic Observations Reliable?

Answer 128

Structured:
+ Good Reliability as the observation can be repeated with the same conditions + procedures set up in the laboratory to reconfirm results

Naturalistic:
- Poor Reliability as if the observation is repeated, the same conditions in the natural environment may change, making it difficult to reconfirm results

Question 129

Are Structured / Naturalistic Observations Ecologically Valid?

Answer 129

Structured:
- Low ecological validity as the participants are in a laboratory which is not natural to them so they may not display natural behaviour

Naturalistic:
+ High validity as the participants are in their natural environment so they should display natural behaviour

Question 130

Do Structured / Naturalistic Observations have Observer Effects/Demand Characteristics?

Answer 130

Structured:
-Observer effects may be a problem as participants are likely to know they are being watched since they are in a laboratory, therefore they might guess the aim and alter their behaviour to fit with it , leading to demand characteristics (This can also link to validity)

Naturalistic:
+ Observer effects are less likey as ppts are more relaxed due to them being in their natural environment. This makes them less likely to alter their behaviour to something more fitting

Question 131

Are Structured / Naturalistic Observations Practical?

Answer 131

Structured:
+ Practical as the experimenter sets up the laboratory room, therefore tthey are able to position observers so they can clearly see behaviour and record accurate data.

Naturalistic:
-May have practical issues as the observer is in the natural environment of participants, e.g. outside, therefore it might be difficult to write notes if it is windy for example.

Question 132

What are Overt Observations?

Answer 132

Those being observed are aware of the presence of an observer

Question 133

What are Covert Observations?

Answer 133

The participant do not know they’re being observed

Question 134

Are Overt / Covert Observations Valid?

Answer 134

Overt:
- Participants may not behave naturally as they know they are being watched, therefore findings may not be valid

Covert:
+Participants should behave naturally as they do not know they are being watched, therefore results are valid

Question 135

Do Overt / Covert Observations have Demand Characteristics/Observer Effects?

Answer 135

Overt:
- Observer effects will occur as participants know they are being observed and therefore may alter their behaviour to fit with the aim leading to demand characteristics.

Covert:
+ Observer effects should not occur as participants do not know they are being observed, and therefore should not alter their behaviour to fit with the aim, therefore reducing demand characteristics

Question 136

Are Overt / Covert Observations Practical?

Answer 136

Overt:
+ Practical as the researcher can easily take down observation notes as they are not hiding the fact they are observing

Covert:
-May be impractical as the researcher will not be able to openly take observation notes down as they are hiding the fact that they are observing.

Question 137

Are Overt / Covert Observations Ethical?

Answer 137

Overt:
+Ethical as researcher can gain full consent from participants to take part in the research since they are aware they are being observed

Covert:
- Not ethical as the researcher cannot gain informed consent from participants as they are undercover

Question 138

What are Participant Observations?

Answer 138

The researcher takes an active role in the situation being observed.

Question 139

What are Non-Participant Observations?

Answer 139

The researcher observes behaviour of others, but does not form part of the group they study.

Question 140

Are Participant/Non-Participant Observations Reliable?

Answer 140

Participant:
+ May lack reliability as the impact of the observer may vary depending on their personality and behaviour, therefore replication with a different observer may lead to different results

Non-Participant:
+Fairly reliable as the observer’s influence will not vary on replication as they are not involved, leading to consistent findings on replication.

Question 141

Are Participant/Non-Participant Observations Valid?

Answer 141

Participant:
+Valid as the observer will be part of the group and so will gain a deep insight into the reasons for their behaviour

Non-Participant:
- Lacks validity as the observer will be an outsider so they may not gain a deep insight into the reasons for behaviour

Question 142

Will the researcher in a Participant/Non-Participant Observation be Objective?

Answer 142

Participant:
- Lacks objectivity as the researcher is part of the group so they may become too involved in activities and fail to draw objective conclusions

Non-Participant:
+ Objective as the researcher remains separate from the group so they will not become involved and they can draw objective conclusions

Question 143

Are Participant/Non-Participant Observations Practical?

Answer 143

Participant:
-Not practical as it may be difficult for the researcher to note down their observations while they are taking part in group activities

Non-Participant:
+ Practical as it will be easy for the researcher to make observation notes as they are not taking part in group activities

Question 144

What is the Content Analysis method?

Answer 144

This method is typically used as a research tool to examine media content and see how common particular words, images, themes or concepts are. It is typically used for media content such as advertisements, books, films, newspapers, music videos etc.

For example, the researcher might look at how common gender stereotyping is in children’s books.

Question 145

How is a Content Analysis Conducted?

Answer 145

1. The researcher would have to start with a research question – i.e. what do they want to find out about. The question should be quite specific so that it is easy to conduct the content analysis.
2. Create categories based on what is presented in the content. These categories should be based on what the purpose of the research is e.g for an analysis of gender roles in the home, you might have the categories of breadwinner (female), breadwinner (male), housewife, househusband. Etc and so you test those categories in a pilot study. (You could test for inter-rater reliability (if there is good inter-rater reliability, it means that more than one researcher agrees with the categories)
3. Select a sample of the material to be analysed – this might be for pilot purposes (when you test out your categories) So maybe 4 newspapers or music videos or films will be assessed for their content
4. Take a larger sample and take a tally on how many times the categories are being emphasised – this is your real content analysis so you will want to take a larger sample
5. You would then analyse your findings – look for trends, make graphs, you could try to find more themes within your findings.

Question 146

What are the Strengths of Content Analyses?

Answer 146

Ethics: They are ethical, as data is collected from existing sources rather than live ppts

Useful: It offers the opportunity for a fresh interpretation of existing data, which may not be achieved via other methods
It’s useful for analysing historical material + documenting trends over time

Reliability: Reliability can be easily assessed as the content analysis can be easily replicated with the same source

Question 147

What are the Weaknesses of Content Analyses?

Answer 147

Subjectivity: A content analysis is a purely descriptive method; so it’s subject to bias

I.V: The categories used should represent what they intend to measure, otherwise the data won’t be valid

May be limited by the availability of material

Observed trends may not reflect reliability

Question 148

What does PET stand for?

Answer 148

Positron Emission Tomography

Question 149

How do PET Scans work?

Answer 149

• Patients are injected with ‘flourodeoxyglucose’ (FDG).
• FDG attaches to glucose, which the brain uses up as a form of energy.
• As the brain is working, the glucose will be used up
• The radioactive atoms start to break down emitting positrons
• This leads to gamma rays being produced, which the scanner picks up.

Question 150

What do the colours of a PET scan suggest?

Answer 150

• High gamma ray concentration = High brain activity = Warmer colours like red showing up on the image
• Low gamma ray concentration = Low brain activity = Cooler colours like blue showing up on the image

Question 151

What are the Advantages of PET Scans?

Answer 151

• Useful for detecting areas of the brain that aren’t functioning normally; which could indicate damage or tumours
• Indicates parts of the brain showing abnormal levels of brain activity; which helps researchers see what problems exist and also predict any future issues
• Objective, as coloured images of the gamma rays aren’t affected by opinion. Therefore, conclusions gathered are valid & accurate

Question 152

What are the disadvantages of PET Scans?

Answer 152

• More Invasive: the patient is injected with a radioactive substance
• Although it is a low risk, it is advised to not take too many PET scans (unless it’s absolutely necessary), as the long term effects of them are unclear
• Lacks ecological validity (unnatural environment)

Question 153

When were fMRI scans designed?

Answer 153

In the 1990s

It’s relatively new

Question 154

What’s the difference between an MRI Scan and a fMRI scan?

Answer 154

The fMRI scan is a functional scan; meaning it is an ‘ongoing’ scan rather than an image (like with the MRI Scan)

Question 155

How do fMRI Scans work?

Answer 155

• Brain activity is associated with blood flow in the brain
• You place your head inside a very large & powerful electromagnet
• Blood flow increases in the active areas to keep up with the demand for oxygen
• Oxygenated haemoglobin repels a magnetic field (diamagnetic); and when deoxygenated, it follows the direction of the magnetic field (paramagnetic)
• It’s these things the scanner will detect to create an image

Question 156

What are the Advantages of fMRI Scans?

Answer 156

• They are non-invasive as they don’t include a radioactive substance
• They are objective as magnetic fields in the brain can only be interpreted in one way, and aren’t affected by opinion.

Question 157

What are the Disadvantages of fMRI Scans?

Answer 157

• Some people are unable to have fMRI scans:
  - e.g. Anyone with a cardiac pacemaker or metal implants
• Not be suitable for anyone who is claustrophobic, or don’t like confined spaces or loud noises; as they will become stressed
• fMRI Scans lack ecological validity, as the brain activity is scanned & measured while the participant carries out activities in an artificial environment. Therefore, any conclusions gathered do not reflect real life brain activity & behaviour

Question 158

What does CAT stand for?

Answer 158

Computerised Axial Tomography

Question 159

How do CAT Scans work?

Answer 159

• CAT Scans take images of any part of the body
• They involve passing X-Ray’s through the head, where multiple beams are passed around the head from different angles to gather more information (as opposed to a standard X-ray that focuses on one specific area)
• The information from the multiple X-Ray beams is interpreted by a computer, and a detailed image of the brain structure can be seen

Question 160

What are the Advantages of CAT Scans?

Answer 160

• CAT scans are good for scanning something as complex as the brain as it can process more information
• Useful for detecting areas of brain damage or rumours
• Gives accurate details of brain structure which helps guide clinicians in decision making regarding treatment or surgery
• Helps surgeons to better plan a procedure as they can accurately see the structure of the brain without physically entering the skull: This makes the procedure faster & more efficient, and reduces risks
• Objective as X-Ray’s can’t be affected by opinion

Question 161

What are the Disadvantages of CAT Scans?

Answer 161

• It doesn’t give any information about how the brain is functioning.
• The use of X-Ray’s in CAT Scans can pose a risk to patients, as they involve exposure to radiation:
• It is advised that they should only be used when the benefits (in relation to diagnosis) outweigh the potential risks
• Pregnant women are advised not to take it, as there’s evidence that exposure to X-Rays can cause damage to the unborn baby
• CAT Scans lack ecological validity as the scan occurs in an artificial environment. Therefore, any conclusions gathered do not reflect real life behaviour + brain activity

Question 162

What have psychologists been doing with brain scanning?

Answer 162

In recent years, psychologists have been using brain-scanning methods to make links between brain scans + activity, and a variety of human behaviours.

An element of human behaviour of considerable interest has been aggression, and researchers have been using a range of scanning techniques to explain aggressive behaviour (e.g. Raine et al)

Question 163

What are the Types of twins?

Answer 163

• Monozygotic and Dizygotic
• Monozygotic twins are identical twins: They share 100% of the same genetic material, and are always the same sex.
• Dizygotic twins are fraternal twins: They share 50% of genetic material (like any two siblings), and can be the same sex or different sexes.

Question 164

What do Twins Studies do?

Answer 164

Provide psychologists with a unique design to test the influence of nature and/or nurture on human behaviour.

Question 165

How can psychologists compare MZ and DZ twins?

Answer 165

• Psychologists are able to compare behaviour between a group of identical/MZ twins and a group of fraternal/DZ twins, to see which group share the most similarity between each set of twins.
• MZ twins are compare to DZ twins. All twins have been brought up together, and experienced a similar environment. Psychologist then compare the concordance rates between these twins.
• If MZ twins are more similar to DZ twins this suggests behaviour is due to nature more than nurture.
• If MZ twins are equally similar to DZ twins, this suggests behaviour is due to nurture more than nature.

Question 166

What is meant by the concordance rate?

Answer 166

• The extent to which behaviour is the same between twins.
• The similarity between pairs of twins is calculated at represented as either:
  1. Concordance Rates (0= no similarity 1= exactly the same)
  2. Percentages (0%= no similarity 100%= exactly the same)

Question 167

How can psychologists compare MZ twins and MZ twins?

Answer 167

• Half of the MZ twins were brought up together, and half were separated at birth and brought up in different environments.
• Psychologists and compare concordance rates between both types of MZ twins for characteristics such as IQ and intelligence
• If the MZ twins who were brought up together have a higher concordance rate, this suggests behaviour is due more to nurture than nature
• If both types of MZ twins have similar concordance rates, this suggests behaviour is due more to nature than nurture.

Question 168

What is an Example of a Twin Study?

Answer 168

Gottesman and Shields (1996)

Schizophrenia in Twins

Question 169

What is the general evaluation on Twin Studies?

Answer 169

1) It is virtually impossible to separate nature completely from nurture
2) Almost all twins will be raised together. Therefore it is problematic to assume that, just because MZ twins shows a higher concordance than DZ twins for a behaviour, it must be genetic.
3) It is not easy to recruit a large + diverse group of MZ and DZ twins, making the generalsability of studies problematic

Question 170

What was the Aim of Gottesman + Shield’s (1996) Twin Study?

Answer 170

To investigate the influence of genetics and environment on schizophrenia, by comparing MZ and DZ twins.

Question 171

What was the Procedure of Gottesman + Shield’s (1996) Twin Study?

Answer 171

• The sample of 57 same sex twins where one was diagnosed with schizophrenia were chosen
• Permission was given to look at their hospital records.
• Each twin was assessed to see if they were MZ or DZ twins; based on fingerprints, blood samples and appearance.
• 24 pairs of MZ twins, and is 33 pairs of DZ twins were identified.
• Hospital diagnosis records were used to assess rates of schizophrenia, and other psychiatric abnormalities in the twins.
• Twins were also assessed; according to self-report questionnaires, interviews with twins/parents, personality tests and thinking tests.

Question 172

What were the Findings of Gottesman + Shield’s (1996) Twin Study?

Answer 172

• Concordance rates for schizophrenia were higher in MZ twins (42%) than in DZ twins (9%), showing schizophrenia is influenced by genes.
• However, since the concordance rate for MZ twins was not 100%, this suggests there might be some environmental factors that cause schizophrenia.
• For example, in cases where only one MZ twin was schizophrenic, the twin with the disorder had often experienced a trauma; such as brain damage as a prisoner of war, or an abusive husband.
• Concordance rates between females were higher than for males for all types of psychological abnormality, suggesting genes linked to schizophrenia have more of an effect in females.

Question 173

What are the Advantages of Gottesman + Shield’s (1996) Twin Study?

Answer 173

• Gottesman used standardised tests such as personality and thinking tests, which was the same procedure for all participants, making findings reliable. Therefore the study can be replicated in a similar way to give similar results and findings.
• Gottesman’s twin study is ecologically valid, as the twins were brought up in their natural environment. Therefore, findings about genes causing schizophrenia reflect natural behaviour.
• Gottesman’s study has application for doctors who could be as a family history of schizophrenia to see whether genes or upbringing causes schizophrenia, and see whether any future offspring could have schizophrenia.

Question 174

What are the Disadvantages of Gottesman + Shield’s (1996) Twin Study?

Answer 174

• As Gottesman only used twins, it is unsure that the findings of genes and upbringing having an affect on schizophrenia is generalisable to all of society.

Question 175

Who are Adoptees?

Answer 175

Adoptees share no genetic material with their adopted families, but they have shared an environment throughout their upbringing. However, adoptees will share 50% of their genes with each biological parent, but not have lived with them for the majority of their life.

Question 176

How do psychologists Experiment on Adoptees?

Answer 176

Groups of adoptees are studied and their behaviour is then correlated with their adopted families as well as their natural families.

If the behaviour of the adoptees shared more similarity with the adopted family we might assume that the behaviour in question was more likely to be the rest of the shared environment. But if the behaviour of the adoptees correlated more strongly with the biological family, and is not associated with the behaviour of the adoptive family, then it could be concluded that the behaviour being studied is caused by a biological component.

Question 177

What is the General Evaluation against Adoption Studies?

Answer 177

1) It is virtually impossible to separate nature completely from nurture
2) It is rare for a child to be adopted by a family immediately from birth, so they may have lived with their biological family or foster care, which are confounding variables which affect the validity of findings.
3) Children who are being adopted tend to be placed with families that closely reflect the family background they came from. It may be unreliable to assume that any similarities between the adoptee + their biological family is the sole result of nature; because the similarity could well be due to similar life events they have experienced.
4) It is not easy to recruit a large + diverse group of MZ and DZ twins, making the generalsability of studies problematic

Question 178

What is an Example of an Adoption Study?

Answer 178

Cadoret and Stewart (1991):

An adoption study of attention deficit/hyperactivity/aggression and their relationship to adult antisocial personality

Question 179

What was the Aim of Cadoret and Stewart’s (1991) study?

Answer 179

•To investigate the relationships among genetic background, environmental factors, and clinical outcome with various psychiatric / behavioural problems (attention deficit/hyperactivity, aggressivity, and adult antisocial personality (ASP)) amongst adoptees.

Question 180

What was the Procedure of Cadoret and Stewart’s (1991) study?

Answer 180

• A sample of 283 male adoptees were chosen to take part in a longitudinal study, the age of the participants was between 18-40.

• The adoptees were divided into 2 groups based on whether or not biological parents showed evidence (from adoption agency records) of psychiatric problems or behavioural disturbance.
Group 1 = Biological parent with psychiatric or behavioural problems
Group 2 = Biological parent with no psychiatric or behavioural problems

• Researchers carried out an evaluation of biological parents from agency records, and direct evaluation of adoptees and adoptive parents was also carried out.
• Relationships between genes and clinical outcome were examined. Relationships between environmental factors and clinical outcomes were also examined.

Question 181

What were the Findings of Cadoret and Stewart’s (1991) study?

Answer 181

• Adopted boys were at an increased risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity and aggression as children if they had a biological parent who had been convicted of a crime in adulthood.
• Boys were more likely to be aggressive or have a diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity if there were psychiatric problems in members of the adoptive family.
• Environmental factors of socioeconomic status (SES), and psychiatric problems in adoptive family members correlated significantly with various clinical outcomes of aggressivity, attention deficit/hyperactivity, and ASP.

Question 182

What are the Strengths of Cadoret and Stewart’s (1991) study?

Answer 182

G: 283 ppts were used, which is a very large sample size.

I.V: A control group was used, where one group had parents with no psychiatric or behavioural problems

Practical Application

Question 183

What are the Weaknesses of Cadoret and Stewart’s (1991) study?

Answer 183

G: Only males were used, which isn’t generalisable to the wider population as it also consists of women

Question 184

Who were the Participants used in Cadoret and Stewart’s (1991) study?

Answer 184

• A sample of 283 male adoptees were chosen to take part in a longitudinal study, the age of the participants was between 18-40.

• The adoptees were divided into 2 groups based on whether or not biological parents showed evidence (from adoption agency records) of psychiatric problems or behavioural disturbance.
Group 1 = Biological parent with psychiatric or behavioural problems
Group 2 = Biological parent with no psychiatric or behavioural problems

Question 185

What do Correlations show us?

Answer 185

Correlations show us whether or not there is a relationship between two variables, or in other words, whether the 2 variables have an effect on each other.

Correlations do not tell you if one variable caused another.

Question 186

How are co-variables in Correlations measured?

Answer 186

Co-variables can be measured directly by the researcher, or they are gathered from secondary data from other sources.

Question 187

How are correlations plotted?

Answer 187

Correlations are plotted on a scatterplot or scattergraph. For each data point, 2 scores are plotted, for example number of genes a person shares, and a behavioural characteristic such as aggression. A place is marked on the graph for each participant, showing both scores.

Question 188

What are the Types of Correlation that can be found?

Answer 188

A line of best fit is drawn across all of the scores of each participant. Three types of correlation may be found:

1. Positive correlation: there is a positive relationship between the 2 variables, therefore as one variable increases, so does the other variable.
2. Negative correlation: there is a negative relationship between the 2 variables, therefore as one variable increases, the other variable decreases
3. No correlation: there is no relationship between the two variables.

Question 189

What are the Correlation Coefficients?

Answer 189

Studies rarely produce perfect correlations. In order to tell how strong the relationship is between two variables, the correlation coefficient is calculated. This is a number that falls between -1 and 1.

• 1:Perfect negative correlation
  0: No correlation
  1: Perfect positive correlation

The closer to (+/-) 1 it is, the stronger the correlation

Question 190

How does a Perfect Negative/Positive Correlation look like on a graph?

Answer 190

The correlation is perfect if the line of best fit covers every participant’s score.

Question 191

What are the Strengths of Correlational Research?

Answer 191

It uses quantitative data, which is objective.

They involve a reliable procedure, of gathering numerative data and plotting it on a graph

Researchers can use information gathered by other psychologists for their study, making them practical and cost effective in comparison to primary data

Question 192

What are the Weakness of Correlational Research?

Answer 192

If data relies upon self report, for example asking participants to self rate their aggression levels, then the correlation may be invalid due to subjectivity

Any secondary data used for the correlations may be cherry picked

Question 193

What Inferential Statistic should you use for Correlations?

Answer 193

Spearman’s Rho

Question 194

What is Primary Data?

Answer 194

Information on mental health that researchers gather themselves. This can take the form of experiments, interviews, questionnaires etc

This might be concordance rates of twins when assessing the extent to which mental disorders are genetic.

Interviews and questionnaires that ask patients about their symptoms comparisons can be drawn regarding differences/similarities between particular groups

Primary data can be collected for a case study on a patient suffering from a particular mental disorder

Question 195

What is an Example of using Primary Data to research mental health?

Answer 195

Rosenhan (1973) field study into mental health in institutions.

Question 196

What are the Strengths of Primary Data?

Answer 196

More valid conclusions surrounding the reason for a particular mental disorder can be gathered if the experimenter collects their own data relevant to their aim.

The experimenter can ensure trustworthy data has been collected (in secondary data, some researchers have manipulated data by rounding statistics up or down), leading to valid conclusions.

Relevant to the aim of the study as variables will have been operationalised with the aims

Primary data will in mind e g. to measure how effective therapy or medication is. However secondary data might have been gathered for a different reason (e.g. government statistics on prescription rates in GP practices) s might not be focussed on the aim of the study

Question 197

What are the Weaknesses of Primary Data?

Answer 197

Primary data is more expensive because money will be required for paying for brain scans on mental health patients, genes to be analysed, neurochemicals to be tested etc

Mental health patients may be unwilling to let researchers investigate about their mental illness or may not be in touch with reality to consent to be investigated.

It will take a long time to analyse primary data this may be through statistical analyses or subjective interpretation of interview/questionnaire scripts when describing their mental illness.

Question 198

What is Secondary Data?

Answer 198

Information on mental health that is collected by someone other than the researcher for a different purpose. This can include previous studies research /medical records government statistics.

Peer-assessed/reviewed articles or public statistics.

Meta-analysis meta-analysis uses a statistical approach (inferential statistics) to combine the results from multiple studies related to mental disorders to gain more valid and generalizable conclusions. (see below)

Government statistics on how many people have been diagnosed with a mental disorder or institutionalised.

Question 199

What is an Example of Secondary Data used to research mental health?

Answer 199

Gottesman and Shields (1966) Schizophrenia concordance in MZ and DZ twins from medical records showing there is a genetic cause

Question 200

What are the Strengths of Secondary Data?

Answer 200

It is cheaper to use secondary data as there are already statistics on mental disorder rates and concordance rates of mental illnesses. Researchers can simply do a meta analysis with the data, which requires less funding. “

Using a meta analysis means comparisons regarding the conclusions on mental health research can be made, making conclusions more valid. “

Question 201

What are the Weaknesses of Secondary Data?

Answer 201

Data may have been gathered for another aim (looking at a range of mental disorders), so may not fit the needs of the secondary investigation (if you are just looking at one disorder) “

The data could be outdated-with DSM changing, the population might be diagnosed differently today, meaning comparisons with studies regarding concordance rates may be outdated. “

Researchers aim to get a significant result-researchers often round statistics up or down to make results significant. Therefore if a researcher investigating mental illness uses secondary data, their conclusions regarding mental illness may be invalid

Lack of knowledge on the reliability or validity of original research means this can reduce the validity of the findings on mental disorders.

Potential of cherry-picking which is when researchers only publish studies that show positive results leading to a bias in the literature, for example only publishing studies that show antidepressants to be effective

Findings are produced after the research has taken place, decreasin validity.

Question 202

What are Cross Cultural Studies?

Answer 202

Samples are taken from different cultural groups to draw comparisons about the similarities and differences between them in terms of how they experience mental disorders.

It looks at whether the experience of patients suffering from schizophrenia or other mental illnesses is the same in different cultural groups.

Question 203

What is an Example of using Cross Cultural Studies to research mental health?

Answer 203

Mandy et al. (2014) chose to test the DSM-5 diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder to see if the diagnosis in the USA and UK would generalise to other cultures.

Question 204

What are the Strengths of using Cross Cultural Studies?

Answer 204

Allows clinicians to understand how culture plays a role in the validity and reliability of diagnoses:

Can identify elements of abnormal behaviour that can be attributed to purely biological factors by identifying trends in mental disorders that are unaffected by cultural variation.

Aids in the understanding of cultural factors that should be taken into account when diagnosing and treating patients. This can reduce ethnocentrism (bias towards one culture, which in mental health, is usually the Western European or American culture)

Question 205

What are the Weaknesses of using Cross Cultural Studies?

Answer 205

Conducting research across cultures is likely to create conflict between the cultural values of some of the participants and those of the researcher

Question 206

What is a Meta Analysis?

Answer 206

Involves looking at secondary data from multiple studies and drawing the findings together to make overall conclusions.

Conducted when there is a large amount of psychological research where firm conclusion on mental disorders or treatments cannot be drawn without comparing the research or where findings may be inconsistent.

A large amount of information gathered from a large overall sample can be easily considered.

Meta-analysis of research looking at the effectiveness of CBT will focus its analysis on the size of the effect of CBT found by ALL of the research gathered.

Question 207

What is an Example of using a Meta Analysis to research mental health?

Answer 207

Stafford et al. (2015) used it to look at treatments of psychosis and schizophrenia in children, adolescents and young adults by using studies that compared any drug, psychological or combined treatment for psychosis or schizophrenia that looked at children, adolescents or young adults.
In total, 27 trials were used which had 3,067 participants.

Question 208

What are the Strengths of using a Meta Analysis?

Answer 208

Conclusions regarding treatment and mental disorders can be drawn from a vast array of different areas and a huge overall sample

Time and cost-effective due to the fact that data already exists and must only be combined and analysed using statistical analyses

No ethical concerns as the researchers do not have direct contact with the patients /participants.

Question 209

What are the Weaknesses of using Meta Analysis?

Answer 209

Much like secondary data, the research has not had direct involvement so issues in reliability andlor validity are unknown and may cause inaccurate conclusions on mental health to be drawn.

Publication bias cherry picking may impact validity researchers only publish studies that show positive results leading to a bias in the literature, for example only publishing studies that show antidepressants to be effective.

A way of finding out trends about a mental health issue and any relationships that might exist.

Research method, procedure, sampling and decision-making are likely to differ between studies. This makes analysis difficult and perhaps in accurate.

Question 210

What are Longitudinal Studies?

Answer 210

Takes place over a long period of time for example a group of people with a mental disorder might be tracked over many years.

Often compares a single sample group of people with a mental illness with their own performance over time, allowing for time- based changes to be seen. Clinicians may be interested in monitoring changes in symptoms in a patient group undergoing treatment

Allows the psychologist to see how effective the treatment is over time.

Includes questionnaires and observations to patients taken at intervals over many years.

Question 211

What is an Example of using Longitudinal Studies to research mental health?

Answer 211

Hankn et al. (1998) carried out a ten-year longitudinal study looking at gender differences in how depression emerges in young people from pre-adolescence to young adulthood, using structured interviews which they administered five times over ten years.

Question 212

What are the Strengths of using Longitudinal Studies?

Answer 212

Allows clinician to see if treatments have the ability to significantly improve a patient’s quality of life in the long term.

Only way to reliably measure the effect of time on the behaviour or mental illness.

A good way of finding out how development of mental illnesses can occur.

Question 213

What are the Weaknesses of Longitudinal Studies?

Answer 213

Expensive and time consuming due to needing to gather data repeatedly, track patients over many years and keep in communication in between interviews etc

Even as have very different symptoms and experiences even if suffering from the same illness, there is no difficulty i making comparisons between different people that could be affected by individual differences.

Patients may drop out, die, lose contact, making the final outcome less valid.

Ethical considerations: following people for a long period of time may be intrusive especially those suffering from mental disorders

Question 214

What are Cross Sectional Studies?

Answer 214

This is a quick snap-shot of a group of people suffering from a mental disorder where a sample is taken and tested and conclusions are drawn for the target population.

Patients might be tested using methods such as interviews, questionnaires, tests of cognitive functioning, brain scans, blood tests and other methods

For example, researchers might be interested to know about the experience of people with schizophrenia at different ages, and so take a large sample of participants suffering from schizophrenia of various ages (rather than conducting a longitudinal study over many years)

Question 215

What is an Example of using Cross Sectional Studies to research mental health?

Answer 215

Wijesundera et al. (2014) looked at tobacco use and antipsychotic medication in out-patients with schizophrenia in one hospital in Sri Lanka, using systematic sampling (every third patient diagnosed with schizophrenia was chosen).

Question 216

What are the Advantages of Cross Sectional Studies?

Answer 216

Data can be collect much more quickly and therefore acted upon allowing for more immediate benefits for those suffering from mental disorders

Results on symptoms and the efficacy of treatments are more valid as they are reported at the time rather than years later

Question 217

What are the Disadvantages of Cross Sectional Studies?

Answer 217

Individual differences are likely to have an effect on the results due to the fact that comparisons are made between different people

Cohort effects can be an issue whereby the results of results might be due to being raised in a certain time and place, for example those affected by war, famine, recession or other socio-economic factors.

When researching mental health, not all groups would have been exposed to the same cultures and such which means they cannot be comparable because they were exposed to different environments. For example when studying anorexia, groups are not comparable as they have been influenced by different cultures and social environments

Question 218

What are Case Studies?

Answer 218

Case studies investigate detail about a mental health rather than cause and effect relationships

Individuals / small groups are studied, they will have a particular mental disorder, or a unique trait or experience connected to the disorder.

Researchers use a range of methods in case studies, for example interviews, questionnaires, observations. These might be given to those suffering from a mental disorder and their families.

Researchers triangulate data from different methods they draw them together and form overall conclusions about mental health.

Researchers use mainly qualitative data on mental health in case studies, but there can be some quantitative data too.

Question 219

What is an Example of using Case Studies to research mental health?

Answer 219

One case study by Lavarenne et al. (2013) referred to a session known as the Thursday group a group of patients, most of whom suffer from schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, who meet every week. The purpose of the group is to support the patients by giving them some structure to help them cope with their illness, and encourage a sense of connection with others for a group who are generally quite isolated in everyday life. There are ten members of the group who are referred from various local out-patient and in-patient services in the local area. The group is currently made up of members who have been attending for between 3 weeks and 22 years. The sessions themselves are never recorded but, immediately afterwards, the group leaders note down key points about the patients’ behaviour, expressions and comments. The case study reports on one specific session with six patients present, which was just before Christmas, where the group members were facing a break of more than seven days before their next meeting because of the holidays. The key theme the leaders noted in this session was that of ‘fragile ego boundaries a breakdown in the line that people draw between the real and the unreal, or their own thoughts and those of other people. They suggested that the group may be reacting to the potential change in routine by having a break from the group for more than the usual one week.

Question 220

What are the Strengths of Case Studies?

Answer 220

Valid as in depth and detailed information about the individuals and groups i gathered so a detailed understanding of mental health is obtained.

Case studies can be used to find out information about rate situations and individuals for example those with rare kinds of brain damage leading to mental health issues. These individuals often cannot be researched using experimental methods due to the fact that a large sample is not obtainable

Triangulation of data can be used to test for reliability through consistency between different methods, and this therefore helps establish whether findings about mental health are valid/accurate and credible trustworthy.

Question 221

What are the Weaknesses of Case Studies?

Answer 221

Samples are not representative as they are small or atypical, therefore findings about mental health may not generalise to society

Researchers involved in case studies often get to know the individual (s) very well which might causes bias in the recorded data, and subjectivity in the interpretations and conclusions about mental health

Question 222

What are Interviews?

Answer 222

Interviews involved verbal questioning of patients to gather information about mental health.

They can be structured with specific questions about the mental disorder, unstructured with no questions but a general theme that is explored with spontaneous questions, or semi structured which has a range of possible themes and questions that can be followed and adapted.

All interviews will have some standardisation in terms of the instructions, the aims of the interview and ethical issues.

The interviewer will also find out about personal data needed for the study such as gender, age, employment, marital status.

The responses can be recorded as an audio recording, video, or in written note form.

Question 223

What is an Example of using Interviews to research mental health?

Answer 223

Research reported by Vallentine et al. (2010) used semi structured interviews to gather nformation from a patient group on their experiences as part of a psycho-educational group treatment programme. The patients were 42 males detained in Broadmoor high-security hospital, most of whom had received a diagnosis of schizophrenia or a similar disorder. They were part of a programme aimed at helping them understand and cope with their illness, and several measures were taken to assess the impact of this on their symptoms. The aim of the interviews was to understand their experience better, but also get information about how the group could be improved in the future Following the interviews, a content analysis was conducted on the data gathered to pick out key hemes in the responses. Four core themes were identified in the data: “what participants valued and why, wiat was heipful about the group, clinical implications’ and ‘what was difficult/unhelpful ome of the key findings were that patients valued knowing and understanding their illness, and he group sessions allowed them not only to understand their own symptoms, but also how other eople’s experiences were similar Many aiso reported increased confidence in dealing with their iness, which made thern more positive about the future

Question 224

What are the Strengths of Interviews?

Answer 224

Interviews allow patients to fully explain their point of view which helps researchers to understand the experiences of those suffering from mental disorders more clearly.

Unstructured interviews are useful for obtaining rich detailed qualitative data that therefore is considered to provide valid information about mental health.

Structured interviews are considered reliable due to the fact that they are highly standardised and therefore questions about mental health are exactly the same for all patients

Question 225

What are the Weaknesses of Interviews?

Answer 225

Interviewer bias might occur where the researchers affect the findings on mental disorders due to the way they ask questions or other aspects of their appearance tone and personal beliefs. This reduces the validity of findings regarding mental health

Subjectivity can affect the analysis of answers to any open questions about mental disorders from interviews, as the researchers’ personal judgements and experiences might shape the way they identify categories and themes within the qualitative data

Question 226

What is Grounded Theory?

Answer 226

This is a method of developing theory from research evidence (inductive method), rather than testing existing theory using research evidence (deductive method) developed in Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s

This method is very useful in Clinical psychology to research the beliefs, opinions and experience of service users of the NHS or mental health professionals, since the themes in people’s experience are only known once data is analysed

Grounded theory involves thematic analysis, in which first, “codes” and “categories” are identified in qualitative data. These codes are general at first, and become more specific as patterns emerge. Concepts are then grouped according to their similarities and differences, and the researcher takes notes on this process, allowing their thought processes to be followed (this is called “memo-ing”) Once clear concepts become obvious, the researchers start to selectively code only the relevant data, and they will move to sampling that gathers more evidence to support what they have started to see (e.g. by to particular of people)

After the researcher has conducted the thematic analysis, they will attempt to create a theory or model that can explain the data. This might also involve looking at other literature and research. This is the part that makes the process “grounded theo (rather than just thematicanalysis)

Question 227

What are the Advantages of using Grounded Theory?

Answer 227

Grounded theory means that evidence is integrated into the theory, therefore the theory should be an accurate explanation of the experiences of patients with mental health issues.

Question 228

What are the Disadvantages of using Grounded Theory?

Answer 228

Grounded theory has issues with subjectivity and bias, since the researchers might selectively sample and use data that supports a theory about mental he lth that is emerging and unintentionally miss any vital evidence that challenges their emerging theory

Since the researchers opinions are used to identify the themes in the qualitative data, this process is also highly subjective and open to interpretation. There might be issues with reliability since it is possible that another person conducting the same research might come to different conclusions about mental health.

Grounded theory does not promote falsification as a means of testing the accuracy of theories regarding mental health (and falsification is considered to be an important feature of science). This is because the theory evolves from the data so by definition the research supports the theory.

Question 229

What is an Independent Variable?

Answer 229

The variable that the experimenter changes

Question 230

What is a dependent variable?

Answer 230

The variable that the experimenter measures/manipulates

Question 231

What is meant by Operationalisation?

Answer 231

Making the IV and DV measurable

Question 232

What is a null hypothesis?

Answer 232

The experimenter predicts the IV will have no effect on the DV/ no significant effect will be found

Question 233

What is an alternative / experimental hypothesis?

Answer 233

The experimenter predicts the IV will have an effect on the DV/ a significant effect will be found

Question 234

What is a one-tailed hypothesis?

Answer 234

The experimenter knows what type of effect will occur

e.g. the results will be lower in category A

Question 235

What is a two-tailed hypothesis?

Answer 235

There will be an effect, but the experimenter doesn’t know what way it will go
(e.g. there will be an effect, but we don’t know if it will go higher or lower)

Question 236

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 236

Factors related to the participants/environment the researcher must try to control so only the IV affects the DV

Question 237

What are situational variables?

Answer 237

Factors related to the situation that affects participants/ the DV

Question 238

What are confounding variables?

Answer 238

Factors other than the IV that affect the DV.

Question 239

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 239

When participants are acting a certain way as they believe it will fit the experimenters’ aim/ what they think they want

Question 240

What are experimenter effects?

Answer 240

How the experimenters may influence participants’ behaviour

Question 241

What are order effects?

Answer 241

When the performance of participants gets better or worse over time. This is a problem as only the IV should affect the DV

Question 242

What are practice effects?

Answer 242

As participants become more practiced at the task, they do better over time

Question 243

What are fatigue effects?

Answer 243

Over time, participants become more bored + tired, and so do worse at the task

Question 244

What is counterbalancing?

Answer 244

A systematic allocation of different people to different condition orders

Ppts will experience order effects for different conditions, cancelling them out.

Question 245

What is meant by randomisation?

Answer 245

Allocating participants to different condition orders randomly.

(e.g. Some participants starting with semantically similar, then getting acoustically similar)

Question 246

What are the Measures of Central Tendency?

Answer 246

Mode
Median
Mean

Question 247

What is meant by Central Tendency, and Dispersion?

Answer 247

Central Tendency - A descriptive statistic that calculate the average almost typical value in the dataset; that is the average score recorded

Dispersion - A descriptive statistic that calculates the spread of scores in the dataset. Measures of central tendency can be misleading without knowing the variation between the scores.

Question 248

What is the Mode?

Answer 248

Calculates The most frequent score in a data set. The mode is the value that occurs most frequently

Question 249

What is the Median?

Answer 249

The middle number within an ordered set of values

Question 250

What is the Mean?

Answer 250

The average number within a set of values

Question 251

What type of data is the mode, median and mean typically used for?

Answer 251

Mode - Nominal
Median - Ordinal
Mean - Interval/Ratio Level

Question 252

What are the Strengths + Weaknesses of the Mode?

Answer 252

The mode is very easy to determine. It is not affected by extreme scores.

However it is not a useful measure of central tendency on small data sets, with frequently occurring same values

Question 253

What are the Strengths + Weaknesses of the Median?

Answer 253

The median is not affected by extreme scores or a skewed distribution

However, it is less sensitive than the mean and is not useful on data sets that have a small number of values, as it may not represent the typically score

Question 254

What are the Strengths + Weaknesses of the Mean?

Answer 254

It is the most powerful measure of central tendency because all of the scores in the data set are used in the calculation

It can be affected by extreme values, or when there is a skewed distribution

Question 255

What are the Measures of Dispersion?

Answer 255

Range

Standard Deviation

Question 256

What are the Problems with the Range?

Answer 256

The range is affected by extreme scores, so it may not be a useful descriptive statistic if there are outliers in the dataset.

It also doesn’t tell us if the scores or bunched around the mean all more equally distributed around the mean

If the dataset has extreme scores, it is often better to calculate the interquartile range

Question 257

What are the Strengths + Weaknesses of the Standard Deviation?

Answer 257

The other advantage of SD is that along with mean it can be used to detect skewness.

The disadvantage of SD is that it is an inappropriate measure of dispersion for skewed data.

Question 258

What does the Inferential Statistics Table look like?

Answer 258

NO IRC

Chi2, Sign, Chi2
MWU, Wilcoxon, Spearmans Rho

Question 259

What does it mean by ‘Ordinal +’ ?

Answer 259

The levels of measurement are ranked in terms of sophistication- Nominal, then Ordinal, then Interval.

Ordinal + just means ordinal and interval data. The ones used for interval are no longer really used anymore, we just use the ordinal one for them.

Question 260

What are the types of Graphical Representations of data?

Answer 260

Bar Graph
Pie Chart
Histogram

Question 261

What are Bar Graphs?

Answer 261

Bar graphs are used to present data from a categorical variable, such as the mean/medium/mode.

The categorical variable is placed on the x axis, and the height represents the value of that variable

Question 262

What are Histograms?

Answer 262

The histogram is used to present the distribution of scores by illustrating the frequency of values in the dataset.

Unlike a bar chart, the bars on a histogram are joined to represent continuous data rather than discrete data.

The possible values are presented on the X axes and the height of each bar represents the frequency of the value

Question 263

How would a Graph always be Labelled?

Answer 263

Relevant graph title
Relevant X axis title
Relevant Y axis title

Plot anything you want (say for practical), or is relevant to the question.

Question 264

What does it mean to have Normal Distribution?

Answer 264

Normal distribution is characterised by symmetry around the midpoint. The mode median and mean should be aligned around the midpoint.

The tail ends should not meet the horizontal axis and we can estimate the percentage of people that fall under the curve at each standard deviation.

Question 265

What is the Normal Distribution curve?

Answer 265

http://img.tfd.com/mk/D/X2604-D-41.png

Question 266

What does it mean to have a Negative Skew?

Answer 266

If the aptitude of the sample is unusually high, it told me that most people score highly. This leads to a negative skew, where many people score above the average/mean score

Question 267

What does it mean to have a Positive Skew?

Answer 267

If the aptitude of the sample was low it will mean that most people will achieve a lower score below the mean. This will lead to a positive skew

Question 268

What does a Positive and Negative Skew look like on a diagram?

Answer 268

http://www.statisticshowto.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/pearson-mode-skewness.jpg

Question 269

What are the different levels of measurement?

Answer 269

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval

Question 270

What is Nominal Data?

Answer 270

Where data forms discrete categories. We know nothing about each value within the categories, we just know the category names.

E.g. 1 - hair can only be nominal data because it can only be described in its categories of blonde, brown, red or black.

E.g. 2 - if you divide the class into students under 1.85m tall and over 1.85m tall, and calculate the frequency in each category, you would have nominal data. You would not know the actual heights of each individual student, or their height in relation to one another

Question 271

What is Ordinal Data?

Answer 271

A level of measurement where numbers are rankings rather than scores in themselves. It tells us about the position, but does not tell us what was actually achieved or the difference between each rank

E.g. a rank order for attractiveness on a scale of 1 to 5

Question 272

What is Interval/Ratio Data?

Answer 272

Data where an individual score for each participant is gathered, and the score can be identified using a recognised scale with equal distances between each score

E.g. cm, seconds, minutes, kilograms, etc

Question 273

How can you judge significance? What does p<0.x mean?

Answer 273

For example, p < 0.10

This means the probability of whether the results are due to chance is 10%

Question 274

What are Type I errors?

Answer 274

A type one error occurs because the level of significance is too lenient

When the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is supported when the effect was not real

Question 275

What are Type II errors?

Answer 275

A Type II error occurs because the level of significance is too stringent

When the alternative hypothesis is rejected and the null retained when there was actually a real effect

Question 276

Which probability do psychologists normally use?

Answer 276

(P<0.05)