Research Methods

Question 1

Define an aim.

Answer 1

The aim is a purpose of a study.

Question 2

Define a hypothesis.

Answer 2

A hypothesis is a statement that is made at the start of a study and clearly states the relationship between variables as stated by the theory.

Question 3

Define a directional hypothesis.

Give an example.

Answer 3

A directional hypothesis is where the researcher makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between two conditions or two groups of people.

People that jog once a week are better at marathons than those who don’t jog at all.

Question 4

Define a non-directional hypothesis.

Give an example.

Answer 4

A non-directional hypothesis simply states that there is a difference between conditions or groups of people but, unlike in a directional hypothesis, the nature of the difference is not specified.

People that jog once a week differ in ability to run marathons than those who don’t jog at all.

Question 5

Define the Independent Variable (IV).

Give an example.

Answer 5

The aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured.

In an experiment measuring the effects of different types of food on children’s behaviour; the types of food are the IV.

Question 6

Define the Dependent Variable (DV).

Give an example.

Answer 6

The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.

In an experiment measuring different revision methods, the dependent variable would be the scores achieved on a test.

Question 7

Define operationalisation.

Answer 7

Clearly defining the variables in terms of how they can be measured.

Question 8

Define Extraneous Variables (EV).

Give an example.

Answer 8

Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if it is not controlled. EV’s are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV.

An example of an EV may be the lighting or temperature of the research environment.

Question 9

Define Confounding Variables.

Give an example.

Answer 9

Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. Confounding variables vary systematically with the IV.

An example of a Confounding Variable may be the personalities of the participants.

Question 10

Define Demand Characteristics.

Given an example.

Answer 10

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by the participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.

In an investigation about revision methods, if the participants were given a test, they may see this as a clue to the purpose of the investigation and they may possibly do better or worse on purpose; the please-U or the screw-U effect.

Question 11

Define Investigator Effects.

Give an example.

Answer 11

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV).

This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the study.

Question 12

Define Randomisation.

Give an example of how it can be used.

Answer 12

The use of chance in order to control the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.

In an investigation including a list of some sort, the order of the words on the list should be randomly generated.

Question 13

Define Standardisation.

Give an example of how it can be used.

Answer 13

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

Standardising the instructions that the participants read.

Question 14

What is an ‘experimental design’ and what are the three types in Psychology?

Answer 14

The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.

3 Types are: Independent Groups; Repeated Measures; Matched Pairs

Question 15

Define independent groups design.

Answer 15

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.

Question 16

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s) of independent group design.

Answer 16

+Participants are less likely to guess the aim of the investigation; thus reducing demand characteristics.
+Order effects are also not an issue.

-It is less economical than repeated measures as it only contributes a single result.

Question 17

Define repeated measures design.

Answer 17

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.

Question 18

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s)of repeated measures design.

Answer 18

+Participant variables are controlled.
+Fewer participants are needed.

• Demand characteristics are more of a feature in repeated measures than independent group design
• Order effects arise meaning the repetition of two tasks could create boredom and fatigue causing a deterioration in performance from the participants.

Question 19

Define matched pairs design.

Answer 19

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and then the other to Condition B.

Question 20

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s) of matched pairs design.

Answer 20

+ Participants take part in only one condition therefore reducing the problem of demand characteristics.
+Individual differences are mostly controlled.

• There can still be differences between pairs which may affect the DV.
• Matching can be time consuming and expensive.

Question 21

Define target population.

Answer 21

(Often known simply as the population)

A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.

Question 22

What are sampling techniques and which 5 are used in Psychology?

Answer 22

The method used to select people from the population.

The 5 techniques used are: Random sampling; Systematic sampling; Stratified sampling; Opportunity Sampling; Volunteer sample

Question 23

Define random sampling.

Give an example of how it can be used.

Answer 23

A sophisticated form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

Acquire a list of the names of the target population and use some sort of lottery method to generate the sample.

Question 24

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s) of random sampling.

Answer 24

+Sample is free from researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is selected.

• It may be difficult and time consuming partly due difficulty of obtaining a list of the population.
• It is possible to get an unrepresentative sample.

Question 25

Define systematic sampling.

Give an example of how it can be used.

Answer 25

When every nth member of the target population is selected.

Every 5th pupil on a school register.

Question 26

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s) of systematic sampling.

Answer 26

+Sample is free from researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is selected.
+Usually fairly representative.

-It is possible to get an unrepresentative sample.

Question 27

Define stratified sampling.

Briefly explain how it is carried out.

Give an example of how it can be used.

Answer 27

A sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain strata within the target population.

Identify the strata; work out the proportions; select the participants from each strata using random sampling

Divide the sample proportionally between males and females.

Question 28

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s) of stratified sampling.

Answer 28

+Generalisation of findings becomes possible as it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population.
+It avoids researcher bias, once the strata is selected, random sampling takes place beyond the influence of the researcher.

• It is time consuming to carry out.
• Complete representation of the population is impossible.

Question 29

Define opportunity sampling.

Give an example of how it can be used.

Answer 29

The researcher uses anyone who is willing and available - an opportunity sample.

Simply asking anyone on a street in the case of market research.

Question 30

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s) of opportunity sampling.

Answer 30

+It is more economically convenient and time saving than say, random sampling.

• It is unrepresentative due to the fact that the sample is selected from a specific area.
• The researcher has complete control over the selection of participants.

Question 31

Define volunteer sampling.

Give an example of how it can be used.

Answer 31

Participants select themselves to be part of the sample.

The researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or otherwise.

Question 32

Give the strength(s) and limitation(s) of volunteer sampling.

Answer 32

+Requires minimal input from the researcher.

-Asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of person - someone that is keen to help out per say.

Question 33

What are the ethical issues in Psychology?

Answer 33

Informed Consent; Deception; Protection from harm (Physical and Psychological); Privacy and Confidentiality

Question 34

Define informed consent.

How do you deal with it.

Answer 34

Informed consent involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (including their right to withdraw at any time), and what the data will be used for.

Participants could be issued a consent letter detailing all relevant information which is to be signed - in the case of a minor, a parent or guardian is to sign it.

Question 35

Give alternative ways to deal with informed consent.

Answer 35

Presumptive consent - asking consent of a similar group.

Prior general consent - participants give permission to a number of different studies, in which one of them may involve deception.

Retrospective consent - participants are asked for their consent having already taken part in the study.

Question 36

Define deception.

How do you deal with it.

Answer 36

Deception is to deliberately mislead or withhold information from the participants at any stage of the investigation.

Participants should be given a full debrief and be given the right to withhold data.

Question 37

Define protection from harm.

How do you deal with it.

Answer 37

Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm.

Participants should be given a full debrief. In a extreme case of psychological harm, counselling should be offered.

Question 38

Define privacy and confidentiality.

How do you deal with it.

Answer 38

Participants have the right to control information about themselves. This is the right of privacy. Confidentiality refers to our right, enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act, to have any personal data protected.

Any data held must be protected, or simply record no personal details - maintain anonymity.