Research Methods Flashcards
What is a Population in quantitative research?
The entire group being studied; statistics describe what is happening with that group.
What is a Sample in quantitative research?
A smaller, representative group from the population; findings from samples are generalized to the population.
What are Measures of Central Tendency?
Mean, Median, Mode; they indicate where data clusters are.
What is the Mean?
The average (sum ÷ count).
What is the Median?
The middle value in an ordered set; if two, average them.
What is the Mode?
The most frequent value.
What are Measures of Spread?
Range & Standard Deviation; Show data dispersion around central tendency.
What is the Range?
Difference between the smallest and largest values.
What is Standard Deviation (SD)?
How close the values in a data set are to the mean. Low SD = clustered around mean; High SD = data is spread out.
What is Descriptive analysis?
Descriptive analyses summarize existing data; display data; communicate data; describes ‘what is’ at the time of the observation/study. (What’s happening)
What is Inferential analysis?
These analyses are from samples, draw inferences to populations; from limited info, make estimated guesses. Generalize to what is not observed (What can be, what can happen if…)
What is Correlation?
Indicates a relationship between two variables without implying causation. Typically illustrated with scatterplots
What is the Pearson-Product-Moment Correlation (r)?
A measure of the linear relationship between two variables that have been measured on interval or ratio scales. Formula: Covariance ÷ (Standard Deviation (SD) of both variables).
What does a Positive correlation indicate?
Higher values on one variable correspond to higher values on the other variable.
What does a Negative correlation indicate?
Higher values on one variable correspond to lower values on the other variable.
What is the range of r in correlation?
The range of r is -1.0 to +1.0.
What does a value close to 0 in correlation indicate?
Indicates a weak linear relationship.
What does a value close to ±1 in correlation indicate?
Indicates a strong linear relationship.
What is Ordinal Data?
Rank-ordered data; no equal intervals between units. (Percentiles, grades, race placements)
What is Nominal Data?
Categories with no logical order; used to label or classify. (Hair color, eye color, instrument choice)
What is Interval Data?
Equal intervals; no true zero. (Temperature, summed rubric data)
What is Ratio Data?
Refers to variables that can take on any numerical value. (Weight, height, time, decimals/fractions)
What is a Histogram?
Graphical representations of quantitative data showing how often each value occurs. (X axis = Measurable Data; Y axis = Frequency)
What is Normal Distribution?
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve where Mean = Median = Mode.
What is a Skewed Distribution?
Asymmetrical distribution leaning left or right.
Right skewed = positive (test was too hard)
Left skewed = negative (test was too easy)
What is a Null Hypothesis (H₀)?
Status quo/No effect; what’s tested. (population = sample)
What is an Alternative Hypothesis (Hₐ)?
The claim or hypothesis being tested. (population ≠ sample or ≥, ≤)
What is a Significance Level (α)?
The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it’s true. (common values: 0.05, 0.01, 0.001)
What is a p Value?
A calculated statistic that shows the probability the results are due to random chance. (“If p is low, the null must go!”)
What is a Two-Tailed Test?
Used if the research question is looking for a significant difference between the population mean and the sample mean.
Right-Tailed Test
Used if the research question is looking for a significant increase between the population mean and the sample mean
Left-Tailed Test
Used if the research question is looking for a significant decrease between the population mean and the sample mean
What is a Type I Error?
False positive; reject H₀ when it’s actually true.
What is a Type II Error?
False negative; accept H₀ when it’s false.
True Experimental Research
Random selection of participants (R), pre-test & post-test (O). Test group receives the treatment (X), control group does not.
Quasi-Experimental Research
No random selection; subjects are assigned within intact groups (e.g., grade/class). (O, X)
What is a Dependent Variable?
The factor being influenced or affected.
What is an Independent Variable?
The factor that influences the dependent variable.
What is Reliability in research?
The accuracy and consistency of an instrument or measurement tool.
What is External Validity?
The extent to which results can be generalized to other populations or settings.
What is Internal Validity?
The degree of confidence that the observed relationship is due to the treatment and not influenced by other variables.
What is the purpose of Qualitative research?
To understand the perspectives and experiences of participants.
Characteristics of Qualitative Study
Natural setting, research as key instrument and actively involved. Multiple data sources (interviews, observations), participants’ meaning, emergent design, reflexivity, holistic account.
What is a Case Study?
Addressing research questions through in-depth analysis. Focuses on a specific group or people. Multi-disciplinary
What is Phenomenology?
Describing an individual’s experience of phenomena. Rich narrative that captures the essence of participant’s perceptions and experiences.
What is Grounded Theory?
Inductively generating a theory describing a phenomenon. (Sociology) Distilling data to build a theory grounded in collected data.
What is Ethnography?
Describing characteristics of a group of people. (Anthropology) Field work & observations
What is Narrative Inquiry?
Describing people’s lives/stories to add to our understanding. Human story-telling, narratives including patterns, connections and insights
What are the procedures for Qualitative Data Collection?
Organizing, reading, coding, developing, and interrelating themes to interpret the meaning of themes and descriptions from collected data.
What is the purpose of Assuring Trustworthiness in qualitative research?
Ensure the accuracy and credibility of findings; address research bias.
Strategies for Assuring Trustworthiness
Triangulation; Peer Review; Embedded Observations, Considering disconfirming evidence
What is Mixed Methods Research?
Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to gain a comprehensive understanding.
What is Convergent Design in Mixed Methods?
Collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously.
What is Explanatory Design in Mixed Methods?
Phase 1: Quantitative data collection; Phase 2: Qualitative data collection.
What is Exploratory Design in Mixed Methods?
Phase 1: Qualitative data collection; Phase 2: Identify a feature to test; Phase 3: Quantitatively test the feature.
When to use Mixed Methods research?
Compare perspectives, gain deeper insights, provide a more comprehensive understanding
When to use Quantitative research?
Structured, statistical, focuses on verifying theories.
When to use Qualitative research?
Open-ended, exploratory, focuses on participant perspectives and context.
What are the procedures of Historical Research Inquiry?
Identify the event, formulate a hypothesis, gather and verify data, determine data usefulness, interpret and present data.
What are Primary sources?
Original materials like letters, photographs, journals, and firsthand interviews.
What are Secondary sources?
Secondhand accounts found in internet searches, textbooks, and scholarly articles.
What are Tertiary sources?
Summaries or overviews, like encyclopedias or factbooks.
What is External criticism in historical research?
Assessing the authenticity of an artifact or document.
What is Internal criticism in historical research?
Evaluating the truthfulness and accuracy of the content within data sources.
What is the origin of Action Research?
Originated in the early 20th century as part of John Dewey’s philosophy of experiential learning.
John Dewey
Educational Progressivism, Experiential Learning, Self-Study, and Reflection
Kurt Lewin
Coined “group dynamics”, advocated for bottom-up inquiry over top-down decision-making. Emphasized transformational and emancipatory approaches
What is the Action Research Cycle?
A reflective process that helps individuals or groups make decisions and take action based on real-world experiences. (Plan - Act - Observe - Reflect)
What is Collaborative Educational Action Research?
Involves teachers and professional researchers in a collaborative approach. Aimed for ground-level problem-solving and examining the intersection of practice and theory
What is the Belmont Report?
Issued in 1979, outlining three core principles: Respect for Persons, Beneficence, Justice.
What is the purpose of Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
They approve research protocols to ensure ethical standards are met.
What is the Nuremberg Code?
Established after WWII in response to unethical medical experiments, emphasizing informed consent and the protection of human subjects.
What are the three core principles of the Belmont Report?
- Respect for Persons: Ensuring autonomy and voluntary participation, with informed consent.
- Beneficence: Do no harm and ensure participants’ well-being.
- Justice: Ensuring fairness and equity in the distribution of research benefits and burdens.
Who mandates IRBs?
Federal Government for institutions conducting human subjects research.
What are the responsibilities of an IRB?
- Ensure informed consent is provided.
- Maintain confidentiality.
- Minimize risks while balancing them against potential benefits.
- Protect vulnerable groups.
Who are considered vulnerable groups in research?
- Pregnant women
- School-age students (under 18)
- Prisoners
- Cognitively diminished individuals
