Research Methods Flashcards
Cohort effects
differences caused by experiences and circumstances unique to a generation which one belongs to
Time of measurement effects
differences from sociocultural, environmental, historical, or other
events at the time from which the participants are tested
Ex. Social isolation, loneliness or depression during covid
Age effects
differences caused by underlying processes like psychological or sociocultural changes
Ex. Chronological age (inherent changes that occur in a person)
Confounding effects
A factor or set of factors that influences the outcome, where it cannot be determined which effect is responsible for the behavior being observed
Ex. Sex differences in Alzheimer’s disease, race differences, education differences
Types of Research designs
- Cross-Sectional design: studies people from different groups at the same time
- Longitudinal design: studies a single group of people at two or more points in time
- Sequential design: studies the same individuals at two or more points but also different groups
- Time-lag comparison design: studies different groups of people of the same age at different points in time
Describe a cross-sectional research design.
Studies people from different groups at the same time …. It is used to examine age differences, not age changes, and a major issue is cohort effects
*Low cost, easy
Describe a longitudinal research design.
Studies a single group of people at two or more points in time. It is used to study age changes but has issues such as practice effects and limited generalizability
- Practice effects, participants may improve over time simply because people are tested multiple times with the same measures
- Limited generalizability, only one cohort is followed therefore the results may be associated with time of measurement
*Expensive, difficult
Describe a sequential research design.
Studies the same individuals at two or more points but also different groups. It combines longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, and can study cohort effects
- Examines age-changes and age-differences
Describe a time-lag comparison design.
studies different groups of people at the same age at different points in time (e.g., study 65 year olds in 2005 and 65 year olds in 2015)
Experimental design
the specific structure of a scientific experiment allowing researchers to investigate the influence of independent (the one being manipulated) variables on a dependent variable (the outcome)
Correlational study
investigation into the relationships between different variables (e.g., the association between smoking and cognition)
Case Study
an in-depth study of a single individual, group, or community (often conducted using new ideas)
Meta-analysis
a combination of results from many studies to estimate relations between variables (the average of the results)
Why we use more than one method (e.g., cognitive tests and brain
imaging)
Although cognitive tools provide insights into how the brain is functioning it’s important for researchers and clinicians to see a brain scan to fully understand cognitive changes
Other changes in physical and psychological well-being are also studied using physical tests, interviews, and self-report
Cognitive Assessments
Provides an overall assessment of global cognitive functioning
Cognitive assessment is mental
processes.
Brain Assessments
Brain assessments typically focus on the structure and function of the brain rather than just cognitive processes or psychological well-being. They use neuroimaging, electrophysiology, or other techniques to examine:
- Brain structure (e.g., MRI, CT scans) to detect abnormalities like atrophy, lesions, or tumors.
- Brain function (e.g., fMRI, PET scans, EEG) to measure neural activity, connectivity, and metabolic processes.
- Neurochemical and electrical activity (e.g., EEG) to assess brain wave patterns, neurotransmitter levels, or seizure activity.
Psychological Assessments
Psychological changes may also occur in aging which may influence general well-being.
Common areas of interest include:
- Depression: indicator of mental well -being
- Subjective cognitive decline (SCD): indicator of early cognitive changes that may be related to dementia
- Loneliness: indicator of overall mental well-being
Physical Assessments
Physical functioning changes in age and is often examined to help determine independence in older adults
Changes often measured include:
- Grip strength: indicator of overall muscle strength and physical performance
- Balance tests: indicator of future falls
- Activities of daily living (ADLs): basic self-care tasks essential for daily functioning, such as bathing, dressing, eating, toileting, and transferring (e.g., from bed to chair)
- Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs): complex tasks that require higher cognitive and physical abilities, including managing finances, preparing meals, shopping, using transportation, and managing medications
Challenges in Aging Research
- Aging is not the same between individuals (i.e., the process is very heterogeneous)
○ Factors such as genetics, lifestyle, socioeconomic status, environmental exposures all influence how we age
○ Meaning two people of the same age may look very different - Aging is not the same within an individual (i.e., someone can age quickly in one area and not another)
○ Some organs or functionings may be functionally well (e.g., heart) but others (e.g., liver) may not be functioning well - Aging is associated with multiple chronic conditions which can interact and influence studies
○ Many older adults have multiple conditions (e.g, diabetes and hypertension) wich can have an interactive effect
