Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
What is an aim?
A
The experiment’s purpose.
2
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
An outcome that a researcher believes will occur during an experiment.
3
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
The hypothesis that is used when there has been previous research to suggest a certain outcome. Eg: aggression levels in toddlers will decrease as the time they spend at daycare increases.
4
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A
The hypothesis that is used when the researcher has no idea about what the results might be, so they are not sure which condition will cause change. Eg: aggression levels in toddlers are dependent on their attendance at daycare.
5
Q
What is a test of difference?
A
An experiment that looks for the difference between two variables.
6
Q
What is a test of correlation?
A
An experiment that looks for a relationship between two variables. Often carried out to see if it is worth investigating further into a topic.
7
Q
What is operationalism
A
Assigning a precise method for measuring each part of an experiment so that it can be replicated. It is essential that all variables are mesaurable.
8
Q
How could you operationalize the variable: aggression?
A
- Create a questionnaire to fill in - Measure testosterone in the blood
9
Q
How could you operationalize the variable: attachment?
A
- Create a questionnaire to fill in
- Observe participants’ behaviour when they are apart from someone they are attached to
10
Q
How could you operationalize the variable: stress?
A
- Create a questionnaire to fill in
- Measure adrenaline or cortisol levels
- Measure blood pressure
11
Q
How could you operationalize the variable: attractiveness?
A
- Create a questionnaire to fill in
- Measure the symmetry of people’s faces
12
Q
What is the independent variable?
A
The variable which the researcher manipulates.
13
Q
What is the dependent variable?
A
The variable which will be affected by the independent variable.
This is not controlled and is measured by the researcher.
14
Q
What are controlled variables?
A
The variable which the researcher will successfully ensure does not affect the dependent variable.
15
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
Nuisance variables which do not vary systematically with the dependent variable (eg: an individual’s mental health)
16
Q
What are confounding variables?
A
Variables which vary systematically with the independent variable, meaning the researcher cannot tell what caused the change of the dependent variable (eg: the temperature of a room a study takes part in)
17
Q
What kind of error do confounding variables cause?
A
Systematic error.
18
Q
What kind of error do extraneous variables cause?
A
Random error.
19
Q
Define demand characteristics (basic)
A
When participants are influenced by cues that indicate the purpose of the experiment.
20
Q
What are the three different effects in demand characteristics?
A
- Please-U effect: the participant might over perform in an effort to please the researcher
- Screw-U effect: the participant underperforms to try and sabotage the study
- Social desirability bias: participants may behave differently to put themselves in a positive light
21
Q
What are investigator effects?
A
Researchers have expectations for the outcomes of the study so may influence the participants during their interactions with them.
These can be things such as facial expressions and head nods, or certain design choices like who take part in the study.
22
Q
How might demand characteristics and investigator effects affect a study in which a group of students is interviewed about their superstitions. The aim of the study is to see if there is a gender difference in superstition levels.
A
Demand characteristics: Social desirability may make the participants outwardly change their superstitious views as they do not want to be seen as strange in front of others.
Investigator effects: Researchers may encourage opposing views in the separate genders by head nods and positive verbal cues.
23
Q
How might demand characteristics and investigator effects affect a study in which teenagers at a youth club are observed to see if girls are more co-operative than boys?
A
- Demand characteristics: Social desirability may cause the teenagers to behave more nicely if they know they are being watched. - Investigator effects: Aggression is subjective, so researchers may subconsciously make their results favour their hypothesis. This study would be hard to operationalize.
24
Q
How might demand characteristics and investigator effects affect a study in which researchers investigate whether students work more diligently in a maths lesson than a PSHE lesson? Teachers give very similar worksheets to the same students in each of these two lessons.
A
Demand characteristic: Having two similar tests is odd so the participants may change their behaviour due to this (could either be the please-U or screw-U effect)
Investigator effects: The teachers may act differently with different pupils, and may motivate students rather than the lesson itself
25
How would demand characteristics and investigator effects affect a study in which a researcher observes the amount of eye contact between two people who have been requested to have a staged argument as compared to the amount of eye-contact between two people asked to have an ordinary conversation.
Demand characteristics: People may take the staged argument less seriously (screw-U effect)
Investigator effects: Assessing eye contact is almost impossible so would be subjective
26
Define order effects
Differences in the participant's performances as a result of the order in which they complete the conditions.
27
What are the three types of order effect?
Practice, boredom, fatigue
28
Define participant variables
The differing individual characteristics of participants that affect an experiment. These are considered to be extraneous variables
29
Name four methods that can help control variables in an experiment
- Randomisation
- Standardisation
- Random allocation
- Counterbalancing
30
What is randomisation? Give an example
Mixing up the order of an experiment to reduce order effects and investigator effects - the researcher cannot be biased if they don't know what the participant is doing. Eg: if a participant has to remember a word list twice in different conditions, the order of the word list should be mixed up the second time around
Eg: the researcher could randomise the order in which participants experience the different conditions
31
What is standardisation?
Standardising all the elements of an experiment and making it easy to follow and replicate. It is especially important that this is done to the instructions.
32
Why is standardisation important?
All participants should experience the same environment, information and experience. It also reduced investigator effects as there is less room for subjectivity.
33
What is random allocation?
When participants are randomly split between the conditions.
A random number generator could be used for this.
34
Why is random allocation useful?
It reduces investigator effects as the researcher doesn't have as much choice over what their participants do
35
What is counterbalancing?
Half of the participants complete condition A followed by condition B, whilst the other half complete condition B followed by condition A.
36
Why is counterbalancing useful?
It balances out order effects.
37
Describe the independent variable for a lab experiment.
The researcher manipulates the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependent variable.
38
What environment does a lab experiment occur in? (give examples)
Highly controlled (classroom, office, lab)
39
What are the strengths of a lab experiment? (3)
- High control over extraneous variables
- High internal validity, as the researcher is certain that the independent variable is the thing affecting the dependent variable
- Easy to replicate due to level of control
40
What are the weaknesses of a lab experiment? (3)
- An artificial lab environment lacks generalizability (low ecological validity)
- Demand characteristics: the participants know they are being studied so may change their behaviour
- Low mundane realism: not representative of real life
41
Describe the independent variable for a field experiment
The independent variable is manipulated in a natural, everyday setting.
42
What is the environment for a field experiment? (give examples)
natural - in the field (train station, classroom, anywhere normal)
43
What are the strengths of a field experiment? (3)
- Higher mundane realism: representative of real life
- Produce more valid and authentic behaviour
- High external validity (more generalizable) as participants don't know that they're being studied
44
What are the weaknesses of a field experiment? (3)
- A loss of control over extraneous variables means cause and effect is harder to establish
- Not replicable, as a natural setting will probably always be different
- Participant can't consent if they are not aware they are taking part so this could be an invasion of privacy
45
Describe the independent variable of a natural experiment.
The researcher takes advantage of a naturally changing independent variable. (note: this doesn't necessarily mean the setting is natural)
46
What type of environment could a natural experiment occur in? (give examples)
Natural environment (in the house, at school)
47
What are the strengths of a natural experiment? (2)
- May provide research opportunities that wouldn't be undertaken otherwise due to ethical issues
- Have high external validity (can be generalized) as they use real life situations
48
What are the weaknesses of a natural experiment? (3)
- Naturally occurring events may happen very rarely, so research opportunity and generalizability is reduced
- They are not repeatable
- They aren't often in a controlled environment, so the researcher cannot be completely sure of cause and effect
49
Describe the independent variable of a quasi experiment.
The independent variable is based on an existing difference between people that hasn't been manipulated by the researcher (eg: gender, age)
50
What environment can a quasi experiment occur in? (give examples)
Most often a controlled setting (classroom, office, lab)
51
What are the strengths of a quasi experiment? (3)
These are the same as a lab environment as they both take place in a controlled environment.
- High control of extraneous variables, so the researcher knows that the change in the dependent variable is caused by the independent variable
- High internal validity; the researcher is certain of cause and effect
- Easy to replicate due to high levels of control
52
What are the weaknesses of a quasi experiment?
- A controlled environment lacks generalizability to real life (low mundane realism)
- Demand characteristics: the participants know that they are being studied so may change their behaviour
- Participants cannot be randomly allocated, so confounding variables may be an issue
53
What is internal validity?
It determines whether the test itself produced accurate results (ie: there is a lack of extraneous variables).
How well the experiment measured what it is intended to.
54
What is external validity?
The degree to which the study's result's can be generalized.
55
What is mundane realism?
How similar an experiment is to everyday situations
56
What is a population?
The whole group of people that a researcher wants to draw conclusions about.
This is usually smaller than the global population, as cultural differences make it impossible to generalise findings that widely.
57
What is a sample?
A small amount of people that is representative of the wider population. They are drawn from the population using a particular technique.
58
Name the 5 sampling types
- Random
- Systematic
- Stratified
- Volunteer
- Opportunity
59
What is random sampling?
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
60
How is random sampling conducted?
1. Compile a list of all the members of the target population
2. Assign each member a number
3. Use a random number generator to select participants and assign them to conditions
61
What are the benefits of random sampling? (2)
- There is no researcher bias as they have no influence over the participants selected, so cannot specifically choose people who may support their hypothesis
- It's usually fairly representative as long as a big enough sample size is selected
62
What are the weaknesses of random sampling? (2)
- It's difficult and time consuming to compile a complete list of the target population
- People who are selected aren't obligated to to take part, so it can end up being more like a volunteer sample
63
What is systematic sampling?
Every nth member of a target population is chosen
64
How is systematic sampling conducted?
1. Complete a list of all members of the target population
2. Nominate a sampling system (eg: every 3rd person or every 5th house)
65
What are the benefits of systemic sampling?
- There is no researcher bias as they have no influence over the participants selected, so cannot specifically choose people who may support their hypothesis
- It's usually fairly representative as long as a big enough sample size is selected
66
What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?
- It's difficult and time consuming to compile a complete list of the target population
- People who are selected aren't obligated to to take part, so it can end up being more like a volunteer sample
67
What is stratified sampling?
The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of the subgroups within the target population.
68
How is stratified sampling conducted?
1. The researcher identifies the strata that make up up the population (the characteristic the group can be split by)
2. Proportions are calculated to allow the sample to represent the population
3. Random sampling is used to select the participants needed
69
What are the benefits of stratified sampling?
- There is no researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is chosen for the study, so is not able to choose people who specifically support their hypothesis
- It is highly representative as it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the group
70
What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
- It doesn't reflect all the ways people are different as stratification occurs on only one level (eg: ethnicity)
- Selected participants are under no obligation to take part in the study, so it is more of a volunteer sample
71
What is volunteer sampling?
A self selection method where participants select themselves
72
How is volunteer sampling conducted?
The researcher could put an ad in the local newspaper or put a poster up in an appropriate place
73
What are the benefits of volunteer sampling?
- It involves minimal effort, time and cost for the researcher as they just wait for the participants to come to them
74
What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
- Only a certain type of person would volunteer themselves (ie: someone kind, helpful or curious) so the finding will have limited generalisability
75
What is opportunity sampling?
The researcher selects anyone who happens to be willing and able
76
How is opportunity sampling conducted?
The researcher asks anyone who is around at the time of the study.
77
What are the benefits of opportunity sampling?
- It involves minimal effort, time and cost for the researcher as they just ask whoever is around
78
What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
- Usually leads to a very unrepresentative sample as it tends to be drawn from a small area (ie: one room of people, one street of houses)
- There is a risk of researcher bias as they have complete control over who is selected, so they may choose someone who they know will support their hypothesis
79
Name all observational characteristics and their countertypes.
Controlled vs naturalistic Covert vs overt Participant vs non-participant
80
What is a controlled observation?
The researcher manipulates/controls variables to observe the effects
81
What are the strengths of a controlled observation?
Extraneous variables are controlled, so replication of the observation is easier
82
What are the weaknesses of a controlled observation?
The results cannot be generalised to real life settings
83
What is a naturalistic observation?
An observation that takes place in a setting where the target behaviour would occur naturally
84
What is a strength of naturalistic observation?
High external validity, as behaviours recorded in a natural setting can be generalised to everyday life
85
What are weaknesses of naturalistic observation?
- A lack of control makes replicating the observation harder.
- Uncontrolled extraneous variables may ruin the experiment
86
What is a covert observation?
The researcher is not visible and the participants are unaware that they are being observed.
87
What is a strength of covert observation?
Increased validity as the participant is acting naturally
88
What is a weakness of covert observation?
Ethics, as people may not want their behaviours noted down.
89
What is an overt observation?
Participants know that they are being watched and have given given informed consent beforehand. The researcher is visible.
90
What is a strength of overt observation?
It is more ethical
91
What is a weakness of overt observation?
The issue of participant reactivity - they may act differently if they are being watched.
92
What is participant observation?
The observer become part of the group they are studying
93
What is a strength of participant observation?
Researchers have a direct insight into the group they are watching so their results may be more valid
94
What is a weakness of participant observation?
The observer could lose objectivity and 'go native' as the line between researcher and participant is blurred
95
What is non-participant observation?
The researcher remains separate to the those they are observing and is more objective about recording behaviour.
96
What is a strength of non-participant observation?
There is a reduced likelihood of 'going native' as the researcher maintains an objective psychological distance from the participants
97
What is a weakness of non-participant observation?
Valuable insight may be lost as the researcher is too far removed
98
What does an unstructured observation involve?
The researcher writes down everything they see
99
When should an unstructured observation be used? Give an example
When observations are small in scale and involve few participants. eg: a therapist observing interactions between a married couple during relationship therapy
100
What does a structured observation involve?
The researcher only observes previously agreed on target behaviours.
101
When should a structured observation be used? Give an example
When there is too much going on for the researcher to record. eg: children in a playground setting
102
What are the benefits of an unstructured observation?
produce a lot of qualitative information that is rich in detail
103
What are the weaknesses of unstructured observations?
They risk observer bias as they only record behaviours that catch their eye, rather than focusing on all the behaviours they should.
104
What are the benefits of structured observations?
They make data collection easier and more systematic. The data produced is quantitative so easy to analyse.
105
What are the weaknesses of structured observations?
They may lack detail, as only predetermined events are recorded and important ones may be missed.
106
How do you record observations?
On a record sheet, that involves the researcher tallying the amount of times they see certain behaviour categories (examples of specific behaviours you would expect to see when researching)
107
What could be some potential issues with behavioural categories?
- Categories are not clear
- Categories overlap
- Categories require further interpretation
108
How can a researcher ensure that their behavioural categories are well thought out?
- Ensure categories don't overlap
- Avoid a 'dustbin category'
- Give examples of possible forms of target behaviour
109
What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group
110
What are the strengths of event sampling?
- It is good for recording occasional behaviours
- Records all the behaviour that would have been missed during time sampling
111
What are the weaknesses of event sampling?
The event is easily missed if a lot is happening
112
What is time sampling? Give an example
Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame. eg: recording for 2 minutes then having a 1 minute break
113
What are the benefits of time sampling?
It reduces the number of observations in a set time point
114
What are the weaknesses of time sampling?
Observed behaviour may not be representative as it could occur inbetween the recording times
115
What body is responsible for ethical guidelines in Britain?
The British Psychological Society
116
What acronym can be used to memorize the main ethical issues?
'Can Do and Can't Do With Participants'
117
What are the main ethical issues? (use the acronym)
- Consent
- Deception
- Confidentiality
- Debriefing
- Withdrawal
- Protection
118
What is the British Psychological Society responsible for?
The professional duty to observe the guidelines when conducting research. They created the code of ethics.
119
Which four major principles is the code of ethics built around?
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Protection from harm
- Privacy and confidentiality
120
What is informed consent?
When the participants consent to a study in which they are fully aware of the research aims, procedure, their rights and what their data will be used for. (note: knowing everything may change their behavior and pose a problem for the researcher)
121
How can a researcher gain informed consent from participants?
Give out a consent letter for the participants to read and sign. If they are under 16 years old a parent's signature is required.
122
How can a researcher deal with the problem of not being able to get informed consent from participants (it would ruin their experiment)?
Get three other types of consent:
- Presumptive consent
- Prior general consent
- Retrospective consent
123
What is presumptive consent?
The researcher asks a similar group of people to the participants if they would consent to the experiment.
124
What is prior general consent?
Participants consent to taking part in a number of studies, knowing that one of them involves deceit (but not knowing which specific one).
125
What is retrospective consent?
Consent given after the experiment.
126
What is deception?
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants, making it impossible for them to give informed consent.
127
When is deception justified?
When it doesn't cause undue distress.
128
How can a researcher deal with the ethical issue of deceiving participants?
The participants should be fully debriefed at the end of the experiment, informed of what their data will be used for and given the opportunity to to withdraw their results (especially with retrospective consent)
129
What is protection from harm?
Participants should be protected from physical and psychological harm, and shouldn't be put at any more risk than they would encounter in their daily lives.
130
How can researchers protect participants from harm?
- Make participants aware of their right to withdraw
- Reassure participants that their response to the experiment was normal if they are concerned (ie: they may feel scared or embarrassed of an extreme reaction they had)
- Extreme cases may need aftercare such as counselling
131
Why is privacy and confidentiality a potential ethical issue?
Privacy is controlling information about someone. If someone's privacy is breached, then information should be protected.
132
How could a researcher deal with the issue of privacy and confidentiality?
- A person's details must be protected if held
- Researchers can maintain participant's anonymity by giving them numbers
- Remind participants constantly that their data is protected
133
What is a correlation plotted on?
a scattergram
134
What does correlation tell us?
the strength and direction of a relationship between two or more co-variables
135
What is a positive correlation?
Two variables rise or fall together
136
What is a negative correlation?
One variable rises while the other falls
137
What is zero correlation?
There is no relationship between variables
138
Why is there no independent variable or dependent variable in a correlation?
A correlation only searches for patterns, so cause and effect relationships cannot be established. The researcher does not manipulate anything in a correlation so an independent variable cannot be defined.
139
What is a correlation coefficient?
A number that tells you how strong/weak a correlation is, and whether it is positive or negative.
140
How does a correlation coefficient work?
- The closer it is to 0, the weaker it is
- The closer it is to 1, the stronger it is
- If it has the + sign in front of it, it is positive - Is it has the - sign in front of it, it is negative
141
What graph is used for a test of difference?
A bar graph - the variables are separate categories
142
What graph is used for a test of correlation?
A scatter graph - the variables are scales, not categories
143
What are some pointers that something is a test of relationship (correlation) rather than a test of difference?
- There is no clear causation
- The variables can be measured on a scale
- The variables would work on a scatter graph
144
What are some pointers that something is a test of difference rather than a test of relationship (correlation)?
- The variables cannot be measured on a scale
- The variables would work on a bar graph (the word 'whether' is used when describing them)
- It talks about the how something 'affects' something else: there is clear causation
145
Investigation into spatial awareness and the driving skill of sixth form students. For each student scores were obtained on a spatial awareness test and scores on a rally-driving computer game Is this a test of difference or relationship (correlation) and why?
Test of relation
- Test scores can be measured on a scale
- The driving skill could be causing the spatial awareness, or the spatial awareness could be causing the driving skill: we can't tell which is the cause
146
A study was conducted to investigate whether men or women are better at remembering mobile phone numbers Is this a test of difference or relationship (correlation) and why?
Test of difference
- Men and women are set categories that would fit into a bar graph
- The cause is clearly whether you're a man or a woman
147
A psychologist decided to carry out an investigation to test the hypothesis that 'the number of times people attend the cinema in a year is positively associated with the performance in a questionnaire about film actors'. Is this a test of difference or relationship (correlation) and why?
Test of relationship
- Times attending the cinema and score in a questionnaire can be measured on a scale
- There is no clear causation (people might do better in the questionnaire because they got to the cinema more, or people might go the cinema more because they are knowledgeable about film and do well in film questionnaires)
148
A psychologist wanted to find out how the mood of people affects how long people will chat to the checkout clerk in a supermarket Is this a test of difference or relationship (correlation) and why?
Test of difference
- Mood and time of chatting are categories, not scales
- It is clear that the mood affects the time chatting, and not vice versa (there is clear causation)
149
A researcher conducts a study to see if time of day affects ability to remember Is this a test of difference or relationship (correlation) and why?
Test of difference
- Time of day is a cycle: not a scale. This means it has to be measured in categories, as does ability to remember
- Time of day affects memory, so there is clear causation
150
What are the benefits of tests of correlation?
- They are a useful preliminary tool as they establish if there is a strong or interesting relationship between two variables, and whether they would be worth investigating further.
- This avoids wasting money and time on an experiment that wouldn't find anything
- There is no need for a controlled environment or manipulation of variables so correlations are quick and economical. Secondary data can also be used to save time and money
151
What are the weaknesses of tests of correlation?
- Correlations can only tell us how variables are related and not why. Causation cannot be established.
- The change in variables may not be due to their relationship; it could be due to another unrecognisable variable (eg: amount of caffeine consumed and stress levels may both rise, but this could be due to a job or exam - bot because of one of the tested variables)
152
What is a self report?
a method in which people provide subjective information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview
153
What is a questionnaire?
A pre-set list of written items (usually questions) to which a participant responds. Questions can be open or closed.
154
What are open questions?
Questions that have no fixed range of answers. Participants are free to respond in any way they wish.
155
What are the strengths of open questions?
They are rich in depth and detail
156
What are the weaknesses of open questions?
- They are difficult to answer and analyse
- It is difficult to identify trends and to make comparisons between data
157
What is a closed question?
A question that offers a fixed number of responses, usually a range of answers that participants can choose from.
158
What are the strengths of closed questions?
They are easy to answer and analyse
159
What are the weaknesses of closed questions?
They lack depth and detail
160
What are the strengths of questionnaires?
- Low cost
- Does not require the researcher to be present
- Distributed to large numbers
161
What are the weaknesses of questionnaires?
- Subject to response bias
- Often elicits untruthful responses
- Subject to social desirability bias
162
What is response bias?
When the participant selects all the same answers for the ease and speed.
163
Name the three questionnaire designs?
- Likert scale
- Rating scale
- Fixed choice option
164
What is the Likert scale questionnaire?
A scale that indicates AGREEMENT (or otherwise) with a statement using a scale of (usually) 5 points.
165
Give an example of a Likert scale?
Zombie films can have educational value. a) Strongly agree b) agree c) neutral d) disagree e)strongly disagree
166
What is a rating scale questionnaire?
A scale that indicates the strength of FEELING about a topic.
167
Give an example of a rating scale?
How did you find the zombie movie? Very entertaining 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all entertaining
168
What is a fixed choice option questionnaire?
A questionnaire which includes a list of possible options that participants are required to indicate which apply to them
169
Give an example of a fixed choice option questionnaire.
For what reasons do you enjoy zombie films? Tick whichever apply. ⬜ The gore ⬜ The excitement ⬜ Educational purposes ⬜ For socializing ⬜ Boredom ⬜ Background noise
170
What is an interview?
A (usually) face to face interaction between an interviewer and interviewee.
171
Name the three interview types
- Structured interview
- Semi-structured interview
- Unstructured interview
172
What is a structured interview?
This involves a predetermined set of questions. The interviewer asks the questions in real time and waits for a response.
173
What are the strengths of a structured interview?
High replicability between participants and interviewers
174
What are the weaknesses of a structured interview?
No deviation may mean important details that arise are not examined.
175
What is a semi-structured interview?
A mixture of a structured and unstructured interview. There is a set of predetermined questions but elaboration and follow up questions are used. Eg: job interview
176
What is an unstructured interview?
There is a set topic to be discussed, but no set questions. It is more conversational and interviewees are encouraged to elaborate on their answers where appropriate.
177
What are the strengths of an unstructured interview?
It allows the interviewer to collect more information as significant details emerge.
178
What are the weaknesses of an unstructured interview?
The responses are often difficult to analyse and compare with others
179
What are the features of a good interview and why?
- The interview schedule is standardised to reduce risk of interviewer bias
- Information is recorded in note form by the interviewer of an audio recording to be listened to later
- It is conducted in a quiet setting away from other people to encourage openness and honesty
- The interviewee is reminded that information they divulge is confidential
- Face-to-face interviews built rapport so the interviewee will feel more comfortable divulging information
180
What should a good interview question avoid?
- Overuse of jargon (complicated words)
- Emotive language
- Leading questions
- Double-barrelled questions (two questions at once)
- Double negatives (eg: don't not)
- Questions the interviewee may not know the answer to
181
What does the choice of experimental design refer to?
How a researcher wants participants to be assigned to each of the conditions.
182
What are the three types of experimental design?
- Independent groups
- Repeated measures
- Matched pairs
183
Describe an independent group experimental design
Participants are divided into 2 groups, one group does one condition and the second group does the other condition
184
What are the strengths of an independent group experimental design? (2)
- Not affected by order effects
- Not affected by demand characteristics
185
What are the weaknesses of an independent group experimental design? (2)
- Need twice as many participants
- Differences between participants could act as extraneous variables
186
Describe a repeated measures experimental design
All participants complete first condition and then the same people complete the second condition. This is best design to use if possible.
187
What are the strengths of a repeated measure experimental design?
- Fewer participants are needed
- No participant variables
188
What are the weaknesses of a repeated measure experimental design?
- Has demand characteristics
- Affected by order effects
189
Describe a matched pairs experimental design
Participants are divided into 2 groups, one group does one condition, however each individual in group 1 is matched to an individual in group 2 on important characteristics such as age, gender or intelligence
190
What are the strengths of a matched pairs experimental design? (2)
- Not affected by order effects or by demand characteristics
- Reduces participant variables
191
What are the weaknesses of a matched pairs experimental design?
- Twice as many participants are needed
- Time consuming and expensive to organise
192
What experimental design would be used for a study to see if there is a difference in the ability of grey and white rats in learning to run a maze.
Independent groups
193
What experimental design would be used for a study to investigate whether a twin born first is more confident than a second-born twin?
Matched pairs
194
What experimental design would be used for a study to see if watching violent television programmes is likely to make children aggressive.
Repeated measures
195
What experimental design would be used for a study to investigate whether people are more likely to eat healthily when they are in a group than when they are alone?
Repeated measures
196
What experimental design would be used for research into finding a cure for fear of spiders, comparing a treatment group with a non-treatment group?
Independent groups or matched pairs
197
What experimental design would be used for an investigation into whether people prefer gin and tonic or vodka and lime?
Repeated measures
198
What two measures do descriptive statistics include?
- Measures of central tendency (averages/middle score)
- Measures of dispersion (spread/the rest of the data surrounding the average)
199
What are descriptive statistics?
Descriptive statistics are used as a way of summarising and analysing quantitative data to draw meaningful conclusions. They are not very descriptive or powerful.
200
List the three measures of central tendency
- Mode - Median - Mean
201
What is the mode?
The most frequently occurring score within a data set
202
What is an advantage of the mode?
It is very easy to calculate
203
What is a disadvantage of the mode?
It is very rarely representative of the data as a whole
204
What is the median?
The middle value in a set of scores when arranged from smallest to largest. When there is an even number of scores the 2 middle scores are averaged
205
What are advantages of the median?
- Anomalous scores do not affect it
- It is easy to calculate
206
What is a disadvantage of the median?
It is less sensitive as not all values are included in the final calculation
207
How is the mean calculated?
The mean is calculated by adding up the scores in a set of data and dividing them by the total number of scores
208
What are the advantages of the mean?
- It is the most sensitive of the measures of central tendency
- It includes all the scores in the data set, making it more representative of the data as whole
209
What is a disadvantage of the mean?
It can be distorted by anomalous results
210
Name the two measures of dipersion
- Range - Standard deviation
211
What is the range and how is it calculated?
The range is a simple calculation of the spread of scores. It is worked out by taking the lowest value from the highest value.
212
What is an advantage of the range?
It is easy to calculate
213
What is a disadvantage of the range?
It is not representative of the entire data set as it only takes into account extreme values
214
What is standard deviation?
A more sophisticated measure of dispersion that tells us how far a score varies from the mean. A higher score indicates a greater spread of data whereas a lower score indicates the scores are tightly clustered around the mean.
215
What is an advantage of standard deviation?
There is a much more precise measure of dispersion as it includes all values in the final calculation
216
What is a disadvantage of standard deviation?
There is a risk of it being distorted by an extreme value
217
What is a case study?
An in depth investigation, description and analysis of an individual, event, group or institution. This can involve gathering data from friends and family, as well as the subject themselves.
218
What types of individuals can case studies focus on?
- Unusual individuals or events
- More 'typical' individuals or events (eg: an elderly persons childhood memories)
219
What type of data do case studies mainly produce?
Qualitative
220
How do case studies produce qualitative data?
Researchers will construct a case study of the individual concerned, perhaps using interviews, observations, questionnaires or a combination of all of these.
221
How might case studies produce quantitative data?
The person could be subject to experimental testing that produces quantitative data
222
What is a longitudinal study?
A study that takes place over a long period of time. Case studies tend to be longitudinal.
223
What are the strengths of case studies?
- They give detailed insight into unusual/atypical behaviour
- They are less superficial than an experiment or questionnaire
- They help us to understand 'normal functioning' behaviour
- They generate hypotheses for future studies
- Solitary contradictory influence may lead to the overturning of a theory
224
What are the weaknesses of case studies?
- Small sample sizes mean they are not generalisable
- Information that makes it into the final report may be biased due to the researcher's subjective opinion
- Personal accounts from participants and family are prone to inaccuracy and memory decay
225
What is a pilot study?
A study carried out before the main procedure on a smaller scale in order to identify issues and ensure that it runs smoothly. The data from a pilot study is not included in the final data set.
226
What type of studies can a pilot study be?
- Experimental study
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
227
Why is it important for researchers to avoid flawed designs?
It could potentially save them time and money
228
In a study aimed to investigate whether or not playing calming music in a dental waiting room could reduce the level of anxiety observed in patients, what might a researcher want to check as part of their pilot study?
- That the speakers work
- That the music they play is calming
- That anxiety can be effectively measured
- That the cameras (or however they are observing the participants) is effective
229
In a study aimed to investigate smoking habits in teenagers by issuing a questionnaire, what might a researcher want to check as part of their pilot study?
- That the questionnaire makes sense
- Standardised instructions
- The time given for participants to answer the questionnaire
230
In a study aimed to investigate whether or not the presence of loud noise is in the background impacted on the recall of photo based images of people, what might a researcher want to check as part of their pilot study?
- That the speaker's volume works
- That the photos are clearly visible and presented for long enough
- Standardised instructions
231
In a study aimed to investigate the difference between the level of aggression in boys and girls in the school playground, what might a researcher want to check as part of their pilot study?
- That they operationalise how they measure aggression
- That the children are visible to the researcher
232
What is a single-blind procedure?
Participants are not told the aim of the research and/or which condition of the experiment they are receiving
233
Why are single-blind procedures useful?
They control for demand characteristics
234
What is a double-blind procedure?
Neither the participants or the researcher who conducts the study is aware of the aims of the investigation
235
Why are double-blind procedures useful?
They control for researcher bias, as the researcher is less likely to manipulate the results if they don't know how to.
236
When can a psychological measure be called reliable?
If the psychological measure can be used the multiple times with the same results, it is reliable. Eg: a reliable intelligence test would yield the same results on the same person each time the measurement is taken
237
Name the two key methods of measuring reliability
- Test-retest method
- Inter-rater/inter-observer method
238
When is the test-retest method commonly applied?
When assessing the reliability of of psychological tests, questionnaires or interviews
239
Explain the test-retest method
The psychological test is administered twice (with an appropriate time gap in between) and the results are compared. If scores are obtained then a correlation coefficient can be calculated. If the correlation coefficient is +0.80 or more then the result is reasonably reliable.
240
What is challenging about the test-retest method?
Deciding the time lapse between tests. There must be sufficient time to be sure that the participant is not simply recalling their previous responses but not too much time in case the attitude or ability being tested actually changes.
241
Explain inter-rater or inter-observer reliability
This involves checking the consistency of ratings that two or more independent researchers have completed separately. The two observers will apply the behavioral categories to a pilot study and the consistency of the results will be assessed by calculating the correlation coefficient. If the correlation coefficient is +0.80 or above, the results are fairly reliable.
242
How can questionnaires be improved if they are found to be unreliable?
- Ambiguous or complex questions may be removed
- Open questions that are more open to interpretation may be replaced with closed questions that have a restricted set of answers
243
How can interviews be improved if they are found to be unreliable?
- The same interviewer can be used with all participants
- If different interviewers are used they should be trained in the same way
- Make the interview as structured as possible
244
How can experiments be improved if they are found to be unreliable?
Standardised instructions and procedures should be used
245
How can observations be improved if they are found to be unreliable?
- Careful operationalisation
- Good explanation of behavioural categories
- Observations should be as independent as possible
246
What is internal validity?
A measure of whether the results obtained are solely affected by the independent variable.
247
What is external validity?
Measure of how generalisable the results are to every day life.
248
What are the two types of internal validity?
Face and concurrent
249
What are the three types of external validity?
Ecological, population, temporal
250
Define face validity
A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to.
251
Define concurrent validity
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to a pre-existing similar measure.
252
Define ecological validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations.
253
Define population validity
The extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other populations.
254
Define temporal validity
The extent to which findings from particular studies, concepts and theories hold over time.
255
How can face validity be measured?
'eyeballing' or passing onto an expert
256
How can the validity of experimental research be improved?
- Use of a control group to assess whether changes were due to the effect of the independent variable - The use of single-blind and double-blind procedures - Standardised procedures to minimise the impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects
257
How can the validity of a questionnaire be improved?
Include a lie scale within questions to assess consistency of participant's responses and to control for the effects of social desirability.
258
How can the validity of observations be improved?
- The researcher should remain undetected, as in covert observations, so that participants act natural
- Ensure behavioural categories are not too broad, overlapping or ambiguous
259
How can the validity of a qualitative methods investigation be improved?
- Inclusion of direct quotes
- Triangulation: using a number of different sources as evidence (interviews, diaries, observations)
- Coherence of the researcher's reporting
260
What is content analysis?
The process of studying the communications that a participant has produced by interpreting and coding textual and oral material. It aims to summarise and describe the communication in a systematic way so overall conclusions can be drawn.
261
Give some examples of what could be studied for content analysis
- What someone says in a speech/presentation
- Electronic material such as texts or emails - Textual material from other media such as books and magazines
- What is said or behaviours demonstrated from TV programmes and films
262
Name the four stages of content analysis
1. Scan 2. Coding 3. Coding 4. Thematic analysis
263
What is the first stage of content analysis?
Scan the material and familiarise yourself with what it is about
264
What is the second stage of content analysis?
Coding. Choose the categories that you will use to collect quantitative data
265
What is the third stage of content analysis?
Coding. Read through the material again and record on your record sheet how many times each word/phrase appears.
266
What is the fourth stage of content analysis?
Thematic analysis. Look at your coded themes and identify themes which keep cropping up.
267
What are the strengths of content analysis?
- It produces both qualitative and quantitative data depending on the aims of the research
- Can get around ethical issues (eg: TV and books are already in the public domain so consent doesn't need to be given)
268
What are the weaknesses of content analysis?
- Researchers may put their own interpretation on it
- Lack of objectivity, however modern analysts are aware of their own biases
269
What is quantitative data?
Data that is expressed numerically (eg: scores on a test)
270
What is qualitative data?
Data that is expressed in words (eg: written descriptions of someone's thoughts or feelings)
271
Give some example questions that could produce quantitative data about a painting
- How much money is it worth? - How long did it take to paint? - Rate the painting from 1 to 10
272
Give some example questions that could produce qualitative data about a painting
- What is your view of the painting? - Do you think you could replicate this painting and why?
273
What are the strengths of quantitative data?
- More objective and less open to bias
- Can easily make comparisons between groups
- Relatively simple to analyse
274
What are the weaknesses of quantitative data?
- Narrower in scope and meaning
- May fail to represent real life
275
What are the strengths of qualitative data?
- Rich in detail
- Participants are given more opportunity to develop their thoughts, feelings and opinions on a given subject
- High external validity
276
What are the weaknesses of qualitative data?
- Difficult to analyse. Hard to summarise statistically so it is hard to see patterns
- Conclusions often rely on the researcher's subjective interpretation
277
What is primary data?
Original data that has been collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation by the researcher. It comes directly from the participants.
278
What can be used to collect primary data?
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Experiments
- Observations
279
What is a strength of primary data?
It is authentic data obtained from the participants themselves for the purpose of the investigation
280
What is a limitation of primary data?
It requires time, effort and money
281
What is secondary data?
Data which has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research. This data has already been subjected to statistical testing therefore its significance is already known.
282
What are the strengths of secondary data?
- It is inexpensive
- It is easily accessed
283
What are the limitations of secondary data?
- May be substantial variation in the quality of and accuracy
- It could have been conducted a long time ago
- It may not focus on exactly the right topic
284
What is meta-analysis?
A particular type of secondary data that involves collecting data from a large number of studies which have the same research question and the same method of data collection.
285
How can meta-analysis be examined quantitatively and qualitatively?
Quantitatively: analysing the findings/conclusions of all the studies Qualitatively: the combined data may be qualitatively analysed
286
What are the strengths of meta-analysis?
- Results can be generalised across larger populations because there are a large number of studies
- We can view the data with more confidence
287
What is the limitation of meta-analysis?
- Prone to publication bias. The researchers may only include their significant findings, rather than all of their findings, so it won't show the full extent of the result.
288
What three levels of measurement can quantitative data be split into?
- Nominal
- Ordinal
- Interval
289
What is nominal data?
Data represented in categorical form. It is discrete, meaning each item can only appear in one group
290
What is ordinal data?
Data that is ordered in some way, commonly recorded via ratings scales. It is based on subjective opnion. note: This is not a scale of equal measure (ie: someone who rated psychology 4/10 does not love psychology twice as much as someone who rated it a 2/10)
291
What is interval data?
Data based on numerical scales which include units of equal, precisely defined size.
292
What are the three types of distribution?
- Negatively skewed
- Normal (no skew)
- Positively skewed
293
What does a normal distribution look like?
A symmetrical bell-shaped curve in which most people occupy the middle area and the mean median and mode are all at the central point and have the same value.
294
What does a positively skewed distribution look like?
Most of the distribution is concentrated on the left. The graph ends in a long tail.
295
What does a negatively skewed distribution look like?
Most of the distribution is concentrated on the right. The graph begins in a long tail.
296
In what order are the median, mean and mode on a negatively skewed distribution curve?
mean, median, mode
297
In what order are the median, mean and mode on a positively skewed distribution curve?
mode, median, mean
298
For Britain, what distribution would height have?
Normal
299
For Britain, what distribution would salary have?
Positive (the majority of people are not rich)
300
For Britain, what distribution would the onset of dementia have?
Negative (high number at the end because older people get dementia)
301
What does the level of significance mean?
The probability that results are due to chance
302
What is the assumed level of significance for psychology?
P≤0.05 or 5%
303
What is a type 1 error?
incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis (a false positive)
304
What is a type 2 error?
incorrectly accepting the null hypothesis (a false negative)
305
How could a type 1 error occur?
- Choosing a lenient significance level (eg: 10%)
- The research is not tightly controlled
306
How could a type 2 error occur?
- Choosing a stringent significance level (eg: 1%)
- The research is very tightly controlled and the impact of chance factors is overestimated
307
What is a H1?
the main hypothesis
308
What is a H0?
the null hypothesis
309
What three questions need to be considered when choosing a statistical test?
- Is it a test of difference of correlation?
- Is it using related data or unrelated data?
- What level of measurement is the data?
310
What is related data?
- Repeated measures
- Matched pairs
311
What three levels of measurement are there?
- Nominal - Ordinal - Interval
312
What acronym can be used to remember all the statistical tests in order of the table?
carrots should come mashed with swede under roast potatoes
313
What statistical test is used for unrelated, nominal data?
chi squared
314
What statistical test is used for related, nominal data?
sign test
315
What statistical test is used for nominal data from a test of correlation?
chi squared
316
What statistical test is used for unrelated, ordinal data?
mann-whitney
317
What statistical test is used for related, ordinal data?
wilcoxon t
318
What statistical test is used for ordinal data from a test of correlation?
spearman's rho
319
What statistical test is used for unrelated, interval data?
unrelated t-test
320
What statistical test is used for related, interval data?
related t-test
321
What statistical test is used for interval data from a test of correlation?
pearson's r
322
If there are multiple levels of measurement to choose from, which should you choose?
The weakest one (nominal is the weakest, ordinal is the next weakest)
323
What three tests are considered to be the most powerful and why?
- Unrelated t-test
- Related t-test
- Pearson's r These are known as the parametric tests and are the strongest because they use interval data
324
What type of tailed test is a directional hypothesis?
one tailed: there is only one way to prove it is correct
325
What type of tailed test is a non-directional hypothesis?
two tailed: there are two ways to prove that it is correct
326
If there is an R in the test name, the ____________ value should be moRe than the ____________ value to be significant.
If there is an R in the test name, the calculated value should be moRe than the critical value to be significant.
327
What is the level of significance in psychology? (unless told otherwise)
0.05
328
What does df stand for?
Degree of freedom
329
Define implications
How what we learn from the findings of psychological research influences, affects, benefits or devalues our economic prosperity
330
Define economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.
331
What is the 'Nudge Unit'?
The government's Behavioural Insights Team. A small department set up to focus on gains for the economy and preventing financial waste using psychological principles
332
Name 3 ways in which the nudge unit has saved money for the economy
- They suggested sending simplistic and visual messages to people not motivated to pay their car tax
- They suggested using startling statistics in letters reminding people to pay their income tax
- They suggested sending text messages to people who need to pay their court fees
333
Why is it ethically concerning to use psychological research to influence people's behaviour?
- People did not consent to having their psychological information used, or to be manipulated by it
- Shock tactics may scare people and affect them negatively
334
Why is it not ethically concerning to use psychological research to influence people's behaviour?
- Manipulation is part of everyday life
- It is for a good cause
335
How might research into eyewitness testimony and the cognitive interview lead to economic benefits in the long run?
- Saves police time and money
- Facts can be gathered easier
- Prosecution cases are stronger
336
How might research into the processes that influence social change benefit the economy?
- A smoking ban would save the NHS money - Environmentally friendly laws reduce manufacturing costs
337
What is the correct order to write a psychological report?
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Method
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Referencing
338
Define an abstract
A summary of aims and hypotheses, method/ procedure, results and conclusions. 150 - 200 words.
339
Why is an abstract useful?
It helps you to see of the study is relevant to your research
340
Define an introduction
Several studies summarised leading logically to the aim and hypothesis of the research
341
How should an introduction be structured?
The broad topic should be introduced and it gradually narrows down to summaries of previous research and then the current research's aims and hypothesis
342
Give the basic definition of a method
Includes the, design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics. It should give enough information for the study to be replicated and justify the choices made
343
Give some examples of what could be included in the design section of the method?
- Whether you are using independent groups, matched pairs or repeated measures
- If it is natural, laboratory, quasi or field
344
What should be included in the sample section of the method?
Information relating to the people involved in the study
- How many
- Biographical info
- Demographical info
- Sampling method
- Target population
345
What should be included in the procedure section of the method?
A recipe style list of everything that happened in the investigation from start to finish. This includes a verbatim record of everything said to participants (briefing, standard instructions, debriefing)
346
What should be included in the results?
- Descriptive statistics (eg: tables, graphs, charts, measures of central tendency and dispersion)
- Inferential statistics (reference the choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, level of significance and final outcome)
347
Where should any raw data be included in the report?
The appendix (not the main report body)
348
What should be included in the report if qualitative methods have been used?
Thematic analysis
349
What should be included in the discussion?
- A summary of the findings in verbal form in the context of the evidence in the introduction and other relevant research
- Discuss the limitations of the investigation and suggest how these could be rectified in the future
- Consider the wider implications and real world applications of the research
350
What is a reference?
The full details of an source matter that the researcher cited or used. Used to avoid plagiarism.
351
What is the generic order of a journal reference?
Author. (Date). Journal title. Journal type. Volume number. (Issue number). Page number.
352
What is the generic order of a book reference?
Author. (Date). Book title. Place of publication. Publisher.
353
What did philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1962) suggest distinguished scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines.?
- A shared set of assumptions
- Methods
354
What did Thomas Kuhn suggest psychology is?
A pre-science
355
What type of science are biology and physics?
Natural
356
Why did Thomas Kuhn suggest that psychology is a pre-science?
It has too much internal disagreement and too many conflicting approaches.
357
What are the 5 different approaches in psychology?
- Biological
- Learning
- Cognitive
- Humanistic
- Psychodynamic
358
When did Kuhn say progress in science occurs?
When there is a revolution in thinking and a new understanding is accepted
359
What did Kuhn call a change in science that leads to a new understanding of a concept?
A paradigm shift
360
What is a paradigm?
An agreed set of assumptions and methods within a scientific discipline
361
Give the full definition of a paradigm shift
A significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline, brought about by new findings and understanding
362
What did the philosopher Karl Popper (1934) say about what qualifies as science?
For a theory to be considered scientific it needs to have falsifiability. Just because a theory has been successfully and repeatedly tested does not make it true - it just hasn't yet been proven false.
363
Define falsifiability
The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being found untrue
364
What did Karl Popper say good science is?
Those where theories are constantly challenged
365
What did Karl Popper say pseudoscience is?
Those where theories cannot be falsified
366
What did Karl Popper say makes a theory stronger?
Repeatedly surviving attempts to falsify it (this still doesn't necessarily make it true though)
367
What must never influence scientific research?
Personal opinions and biases
368
What makes a method more objective?
Being highly controlled (ie: a lab experiment such as the Strange Situation)
369
The more (a) research has then the greater the (b)
a) objectivity b) empiricism
370
What is empiricism?
The scientific process of gathering evidence through direct observation and experience
371
What is objectivity?
It involves minimising all sources of personal bias to prevent distortion or influence on the research process
372
What is a theory?
A set of general laws or principles to explain events or behaviours (eg: classical conditioning)
373
How does theory construction occur?
Through gathering evidence
374
What can happen once a theory has been constructed?
Predictions can be made and tested through hypothesis testing.
375
What is deduction?
Deriving new hypotheses from existing theories
376
If a prediction is made and proved correct, what does it do to the theory?
It strengthens it
377
If a prediction is proved wrong enough times what might happen to the theory?
It would have to be revised (ie: Duck's phase model)
378
What makes a theory trustable?
It is repeatable across many contexts (eg: cultures) and circumstances (eg: participants)
379
Define replicability
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers
380
The more (a) a study is then the more it can be (b) therefore increasing the (c).
a) replicable b) repeated c) reliability
381
Why are lab experiments more replicable than case studies?
They have more control
382
How must research be carried out in order to have replicability?
With precision and rigour
383
What is the most common way psychological research is published?
As part of a journal
384
Who are peers?
A small group of 2 or 3 researchers who are unknown to the researcher
385
Name the 3 purposes of peer review
- To allocate research funding
- To validate the quality of research
- To suggest improvements
386
Who might fund research?
It could be coordinated by the government with funding organisations such as the Medical Research Council
387
What are all elements of research assessed for?
- Quality
- Accuracy
388
What are the elements of research that are assessed?
- Formulation of hypotheses
- Methodology
- Statistical tests
- Conclusions drawn
389
What might peers do if they think something about a report needs changing?
- They can suggest minor revisions to improve the work and report
- They can conclude that the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn
390
What are the 5 steps of a peer review?
1. Manuscript submitted/resubmitted
2. Receipt of manuscript by editor
3. Initial screening
4. Read by 2 or 3 researchers
5. Decision is made about publication
391
At what stages can a paper be rejected?
At the initial screening or at the final decision about publication
392
What 3 decisions can be made at the end of the peer review process?
- Revision required
- Accepted for publication
- Rejected
393
What are the benefits of the anonymity of peer reviews?
- It is more likely to produce honest feedback
394
What are the weaknesses of the anonymity of peer reviews?
- Some researchers may use their anonymity to criticise rival researchers they have a grudge against
- Many researchers are in direct competition for limited funding so may be harsher towards others
395
How are the weaknesses of the anonymity of peer reviews combatted?
Open reviewing systems are sometimes used which remove the anonymity of the researchers and reviewers so can be more honest
396
Explain publication bias
Journal editors and editors are selective about what they publish and research that doesn't meet their criteria is often disregarded, creating a false impression of modern psychology.
397
What do journal editors want to publish?
Significant and attention grabbing headlines to increase the circulation of their journal
398
What do editors prefer publishing?
Positive results
399
Explain the file drawer effect
Researchers filing away studies with negative outcomes because they won't get published
400
Name 3 ways in which peer review can bury ground-breaking research
- It may supress opposition to mainstream theories in order to maintain the status quo
- Researchers will be more heavily critical of research that contradicts their own
- Established scientists are more likely to be chosen as peers so mainstream theories will more likely be accepted
401
Why is burying ground-breaking research bad?
It halts the rate of change
