Research Methods Flashcards
What is the experimental method
Manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable which is measured and stated in results
What is operationalising variables
Clearly defining the variables in terms of how they are measured
What are extraneous and confounding variables
Extraneous- variables that can effect our results - need to be controlled
Confounding variables- variables that ultimately effect our results
What are the 4 types of experiments
Laboratory
Field
Quasi
Natural
What is a laboratory experiment
An experiment that takes place in a special environment whereby different variables can be carefully controlled
What are 2 strengths of a laboratory experiment
-High degree of control
-replication
What are 2 limitations of a laboratory experiment
-experimenter bias
-low ecological validity
What is a field experiment
An experiment conducted in a more natural environment, not in a lab but with variables still being well controlled
What are 2 strengths of the field experiment
-naturalistic: more natural behaviours hence high ecological validity
-controlled IV
What are 2 limitations of a field experiment
-Ethical consideration- invasion of privacy and likely to have been no informed consent
-loss of control- over extraneous variables hence precise replication not possible
What is a quasi experiment
An experiment whereby the IV has not been determined by the researcher and instead naturally exists
What is a strength of a quasi experiment
Controlled conditions- hence replicable so likely to have high internal validity
What is a limitation of a quasi experiment
Cannot randomly allocate participants- may be confounding variables presented so it’s harder to conclude that the IV caused the DV
What is a natural environment
An experiment in which the IV is not brought about by the researcher hence would’ve happened if the researcher had not been there
What are 2 strengths of a natural experiment
-Provides opportunities for research that would’ve been otherwise impossible due to practical or ethical reasons
-high external validity
What are 2 limitations of a natural experiment
-naturally occurring events may be rare so are not highly replicable so hard to generalise findings
-very difficult to randomise
What is opportunity sampling?
-participants happen to be available at the time which the study is being carried out so are recruited conveniently
What are three strengths of opportunity sampling?
-Time saving and easy
-Less costly
-Readily available
What are three limitations of opportunity sampling?
-Research bias-as researcher controls who they want to select
-lacks generalisability- it is not representative of the whole population
-There is no randomness
What is volunteer sampling?
Involves self selection whereby the participant offered to take part either in response to an advert or when asked to
What are two strengths of volunteer sampling?
-easy and not time-consuming
-As participants are willing to take part, they are more likely to cooperate in the study
What are two limitations of volunteer sampling?
-Motivations like money could be driving participation participants may not take study seriously influencing results
-General liability is affected as volunteer buyers meaning the study may attract a particular profile of person
What is random sampling?
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen
What are two strengths of random sampling?
-if your sample is big you can generalise your findings
-No researcher bias- researcher has no influence of who is picked
What are two limitations of random sampling?
-If your sample is small, it may lack generalisability
-It is very time-consuming
What is stratified sampling?
Involves classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each category in the same proportion as they are in the population
What are two strengths of stratified sampling?
No researcher bias- the selection within each stratum is done randomly
Easy to generalise findings as sample is made up of same proportions as target population
What are two weaknesses of stratified sampling?
-The character characteristics selected do not represent all the ways that people differ in the target population
-Time consuming
What is systematic sampling?
A predetermined system is used whereby every nth member is selected from the sampling frame. For example, every third house on the street or every fifth person on the register.
What are 2 strengths of systematic sampling?
-Usually fairly representative of population so can be generalisable
-No researcher bias
What are 2 limitations of systematic sampling?
-it is possible to end up with a non-generalisable sample-for example every 10th name on a list is male
-Not truly on biased unless you use a random number generator and then start the systematic sample
What are the seven ethical issues in psychology?
Consent
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
Deception
Privacy
Debrief
What is informed consent?
When you have been told everything about the experiment so that you can make an informed decision as to whether or not to take part
What are the 3 solutions to informed consent?
Prior general consent-participants give permission to take part in many studies whereby one of them involves deception so effectively they are consenting to getting deceived
Presumptive consent -when a researcher gathers opinions from a group like the participants in the study but does not inform the actual participants-allows the demand characteristics to be eliminated
Retrospective -when the participants are asked for the consent after they have participated in the study
What is protection from harm?
It is the job of the researcher to make sure participants be protected from physical and psychological harm and must always be subjected to the minimal harm in any study
What are two solutions to protection from harm?
-If participants have been subject to any stressful psychological harm the researcher should provide counselling if it’s required
-Cost benefit analysis should be done before a study is carried out and this is done by the ethics committee where by the Persian conference of the study of weighed up to determine whether the study will be ethical
What is confidentiality?
Refers to the right participants have which concerns any personal data of theirs being protected?
What is the solution for confidentiality?
The participant should be reminded during both debriefing and briefing of the investigation that their data will be protected
What is privacy?
Right of privacy refers to the writing that participants have two controlling information about themselves how much it released and how it is used
What is the solution for privacy?
Anonymity can be maintained and this is achieved by the researchers not recording any personal details of their participants so that none of the results can be traced back to them instead researchers can refer to participants using numbers or initials
What is deception?
The act of deliberately withholding information from participants or misleading them during the research study
What is a solution to deception?
Debriefing-
What is a pilot study
A pilot study is a small-scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken. They are carried out to allow potential problems of the study to be identified and the procedure to be modified to deal with these. This also allows money and time to be saved in the long run.
What is a single blind procedure
A research method in which the researchers do not tell the participants if they are being given a test treatment or a control treatment. This is done in order to ensure that participants do not bias the results by acting in ways they “think” they should act-avoids demand characteristics.
What is a double blind procedure
A research procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenter knows who is receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is utilised to prevent bias in research results.
Double blind studies are particularly useful for preventing bias due to demand characteristics or the placebo effect. Gives a way to reduce the investigator effects as the investigator is unable to unconsciously give participants clues as to which condition they are in.
Control group/condition - sets a baseline whereby results from the experimental condition can be compared to results from this one. If there is a significantly greater change in the experimental group compared to the control than the researcher is able to conclude that the cause of effect was the IV.
What is a naturalistic observational technique and its strength and limitations
watching and recording behaviour in the setting where it would normally take place.
- High ecological validity
-High external validity as done in a natural environment - Low ecological validity if participants become aware that the are being watched.
- Replication can be difficult.
- Uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables are presented.
What is the controlled observational technique and its strength and limitations
Watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment e.g. lab setting.
- Researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of behaviour.
- There is more control over extraneous and confounding variables
- Easy replication.
- More likely to be observing unnatural behaviour as takes place in an unnatural environment.
- Low mundane realism so low ecological validity.
- Demand characteristics presented.
What are overt observational techniques and its strength and limitations
participants are watched and their behaviour is recorded with them knowing they are being watched.
- Ethically acceptable as informed consent is given.
- More likely to be recording unnatural behaviour as participants know they are being watched
-Demand characteristics likely which reduces validity of findings.
Covert observational techniques and its strength and limitations
the participants are unaware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded.
-Natural behaviour recorded hence high internal validity of results.
-removes problem of participant reactivity whereby participants try to make sense of the situation they are in, which makes them more likely to guess the aim of the study.
- Ethical issues presented as no informed consent given.
Also could be invading the privacy of the participants.
Participant observational technique and its strength and limitation
The researcher who is observing is part of the group that is being observed.
- Can be more insightful which increases the validity of the findings.
-There’s always the possibility that behaviour may change if the participants were to find out they are being watched.
- Researcher may lose objectivity as may start to identify too strongly with the participants.
Non participant observational technique and its strength and limitations
The researcher observes from a distance so is not part of the group being observed.
- Researcher can be more objective as less likely to identify with participants since watching from outside of the group.
- Open to observer bias for example of stereotypes the observer is aware of.
- Researchers may lose some valuable insight.
Structured observational designed v unstructured and strengths and limitations
Unstructured- consists of continuous recording where the researcher writes everything they see during the observation
- More richness and depth of detail.
- Produces qualitative data which is more difficult to record & analyse.
- Greater risk of observer bias e.g. only record ‘catch the eye’ behaviours.
Structured- Here the researcher quantifies what they are observing using predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods.
- Easier as is more systematic.
- Quantitative data is collected which is easy to analyse and compare with other data.
- There is less risk of observer bias.
- Not much depth of detail.
- Difficult to achieve high inter observer reliability as filling the predetermined lists in is subjective.
Time and event sampling in structured interviews
Time sampling- this is the recording of behaviour within a timeframe that is
pre-established before the observational study.
- It reduces the number of observations that has to made so it is less time consuming.
- The small amount of data that you collect within that time frame ends up being unrepresentative of the observation as a whole.
Event sampling- this involves the counting of the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out by the target group or individual you are watching.
- It is good for infrequent behaviours that are likely to be missed if time sampling was used.
- If complex behaviour is being observed, important details of the behaviour may be overlooked by the observer.
- If the behaviour is very frequent, there could be counting errors.
- It is difficult to judge the beginning and ending of a behaviour.
What is a case study
A case study is a detailed study into the life of a person which covers great detail into their background. It looks at the past and present behaviour of an individual to build up a case history hence provides qualitative data.
Strength of case studies
- Detailed so able to gain in depth insight.
- Forms basis for future research.
- From studying unusual cases you are able to infer things about normal usual behaviour of humans
- Permits investigation of situations that would be otherwise unethical or impractical.
Weaknesses of case studies
- Not generalisable to wider populations as data is only gathered from one person.
- Various interviewer biases are presented like social desirability bias (from the unique person’s side) and interpretative bias (from the researcher’s side).
- Retrospective studies may rely on memory which can be inaccurate.
- They are time consuming and difficult to replicate.
What are 2 self report designs
• Questionnaires - These assess a person’s thoughts or experiences through a number of different written questions.
• Interviews - This involves a live encounter where a set of questions is asked by an interviewer to an interviewee to assess their thoughts or experiences.
What are the 2 types of questionnaires and its strength and weakness
Open Question - This is when the questions are phrased in a way that the participant is free to answer however they like, there are no restrictions. This type collects qualitative data.
- Rich in depth and detail.
- Useful for sensitive topics as participants can elaborate on their answers.
- Difficult to convert to statistical data hence more difficult to analyse.
Closed Question - In contrast, this type of questionnaire consists of questions which restrict you to a fixed number of responses.
This type collects quantitative data.
Examples:
- Likert scale- the respondent indicates agreement with a statement, ranges from agree to strongly agree.
- Rating scales- a rating scale works in a similar way but gets respondents to identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic.
- Fixed choice scales- the question includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them.
-Easy to analyse data and compare with data from elsewhere.
- Lack of depth and detail.
- Can be limiting which can be frustrating for participants.
Strengths of questionnaires
- Cost-effective.
- Gathers large amounts of data quickly.
- The researcher does not need to be present.
- They are easy to analyse.
- As responses can be anonymous this usually means participants are more open.
Weakness of questionnaires
- Difficult to know whether the target population it was intended for answered it e.g. if it is online.
- They take a long time to design.
- It is difficult to assess the validity as biases such as social desirability bias (when the participant wants to present themselves in a positive light so is not truthful) are presented.
- Participant bias presented from factors such as time, age, gender.
- Response bias presented e.g. acquiescence bias whereby participants simply agree with all the questions, instead of putting effort into considering an answer for each question.
5 factors needed to be thought about when designing questionnaires
• Clarity - the questions should be phrased in such a way that it is clear for the respondent on what answer is needed from them.
• Avoid overuse of jargon, emotive language, double-barrelled questions, double negatives and leading questions. All these can cause biases which affects the validity of the results.
• Sequencing questions - easy ones can be first then followed by the harder ones. This allows a build up of confidence in each participant.
• Filler questions - these are questions which have nothing to do with the aims of the investigation and are put in to distract the participant from guessing the real aim of the study. Therefore these eliminate demand characteristics.
- Pilot study - can be carried out to ensure that the questionnaire is suitable and if not amendments and improvements can be made.
What are the two types of interviews and their strengths and weaknesses
Structured - Involves a set of predetermined questions being asked during the interview. The interviewer asks the questions and for each waits for a suitable
- Standardisation is possible.
- Easily replicable.
- Can make comparisons between participants easily which is a strong benefit for job interviews
- Interviewer bias which can be presented through aspects such as body language, listening skills, when to ask a question and interpretative bias (how answers are recorded).
- Social desirability bias.
-Not being able to elaborate can be distracting for participants
Unstructured - There are no predetermined questions, instead questions develop as the interview goes on.
This allows for questions be tailored to individuals and is more free flowing.
- Lots of data is collected with more depth and detail.
- As can be tailored to individuals they can provide more insight.
- Skilled interviewers needed.
- Interviewer bias also presented.
- Social desirability bias.
- Difficult to make comparisons between participants.
- The analysis of data is difficult as may have to sift through a lot of irrelevant data.
Construction and design of interviews
• Recording information - this can be done in various ways e.g. writing down answers, using a video recorder, using an audio recorder.
• Ethical issues - Informed consent is needed from the participant for the researcher to obtain and keep the data. The participant should be reminded that their answers will be kept confidential.
• Location - A quiet room away from other people is the most appropriate as this location is likely to get the participant to feel comfortable and open up.
• Neutral questions - These are usually started with to make the participant feel relaxed and help establish a rapport.
What is reliability and why is it important
Reliability is a measure of how consistent the findings from an investigation are.
• To ensure the DV is being measured accurately.
• To ensure that over periods of time, the outcome is still the same.
• To ensure that all the conclusions made are accurate and valid as if not can have implications for theory development.
What is internal reliability and the way of assessing it
Internal reliability- describes how consistent something is within itself.
- Split half method - Randomly select half of the questions and put them in one form then do the same for others. Theses two forms of the same test are then done separately and should yield the same score,have a correlation coefficient of ≥ 0.80
What is external reliability and how to test it and the formula
External reliability- this is when consistent results are produced regardless of when the investigation is used or who administers it.
-Test-retest method - the researcher administers the same test on the same person on different occasions. The results should yield a correlation coefficient of ≥ 0.80. Sufficient time should be left between the test and retest so participants cannot recall their answers, and this time in between should not be too long as the person’s attitudes may change.
- Inter-observer reliability - refers to the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observing behaviour. This eliminates subjectivity bias and may either be carried out in a pilot study or reported at the end of the study.
It is calculated by the formula:
Total number of agreements
Total number of observations
≥ 0.80 = High inter observer reliability
