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Research methods > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is the experimental method?

A

A method which involves manipulating an IV to measure the effect on the DV

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2
Q

Define ‘aim’

A

Describes the purpose of a study

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3
Q

Define ‘hypothesis’

A

Clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between two variables

e.g. leaving for lunch will effect GCSE results

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4
Q

What is a directional hypothesis? When is it used?

A

Shows expected direction of the relationship between two variables.

When there has been prior research to indicate a direction of the relationship.

e.g. leaving for lunch will increase GCSE results

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5
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis? When is it used?

A

Outlines a relationship between two variables but doesn’t state the expected direction of the relationship.

When research is conflicting or there has been no prior research.

e.g. leaving for lunch will effect GCSE results

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6
Q

What does it mean to operationalise a variable?

A

Clearly defining variables to make them specific and clearly measurable

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7
Q

Define ‘independent variable’

A

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher

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8
Q

Define ‘dependent variable’

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher

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9
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

The variable (other than the IV) that potentially affects the DV in a non-systematic way. Can be controlled. May compete with the IV.

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10
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

The variable (other than the IV) that will affect the DV in a systematic way so we can’t tell if a change in the DV is due to manipulation of the IV or a confounding variable.

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11
Q

What are participant variables? Examples

A

Type of extraneous variables related to the individual differences between participants which may affect the DV e.g. IQ, Age, Gender

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12
Q

What are situational variables? Examples

A

Type of extraneous variables relate to the differences in the environment of the experimental situation which may affect the DV e.g. Temperature, time of day, weather, noise.

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13
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Cues from the experiment allowing the participant to work out the purpose of the experiment

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14
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Unconscious or conscious effect of the investigator on the DV.

E.g. smiling at participants giving correct answers or asking leading questions.

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15
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Use of chance to reduce the researcher’s influence on the investigation.

E.g. order of word lists are random. Controls for investigator effects.

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16
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study. Controls for situational variables.

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17
Q

What is a single-blind procedure and what is it’s purpose?

A

When participants are not aware of the aim of the study or which condition they are in in the experiment. To control for demand characteristics.

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18
Q

What is a double-blind procedure? What is the purpose?

A

When both the participants and experimenter are not aware of the aim of the experiment. To reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects.

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19
Q

What is the target population?

A

The group of people who the researcher is interested in and from which a smaller sample is drawn

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20
Q

What is the sample?

A

A smaller group of people taken from the target population who take part in the research investigation

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21
Q

Define ‘sampling techniques’

A

The method used to select people from the population

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22
Q

Define ‘bias’ in terms of sampling

A

Over or under representing a group within the sample selected

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23
Q

Define ‘generalisation’

A

Ability to apply findings from an investigation to the population

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24
Q

Name the 5 types of sampling

A

1) random 2) systematic 3) stratified 4) opportunity 5) volunteer

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25
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

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26
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Sample obtained by selecting every nth person (where n is any number)

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27
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Sample obtained by identifying subgroups (strata) in the target population and ensuring the sample reflects the proportions of people in each strata.

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28
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Recruit people who are both accessible and willing

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29
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Participants select themselves to be part of the sample.

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30
Q

State 1 advantage and 2 disadvantages of random sampling

A

Unbiased- all members of target population have an equal chance of selection

  1. Time consuming- requires a list of all members of population and then contact all those selected
  2. May not be truly representative of population e.g. might all come from same school or town.
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31
Q

State 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of systematic sampling

A

Avoids researcher bias as participants selected using an objective measure.

Not truly unbiased/random unless you selected a number using a random method

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32
Q

State 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of stratified sampling

A

Representative sample- there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups

Time consuming to identify subgroups.

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33
Q

State 1 disadvantage and advantage of opportunity sampling

A
  • Easy, convenient and cost-effective
  • Unrepresentative sample as It is drawn from a specific area.
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34
Q

State an advantage and disadvantage of volunteer sampling

A
  • Less time consuming. Often achieves a large sample size through reaching a wide audience.
  • Volunteer bias- unrepresentative sample as may attract a certain ‘type’ of person
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35
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale trial run that takes place before the actual investigation is conducted.

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36
Q

What is the purpose of a pilot study?

A

To check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and to allow researcher to make changes or modifications

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37
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

A conflict between participant rights and researcher’s needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings

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38
Q

What is the BPS code of ethics?

A

A legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and isn’t acceptable when dealing with participants

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39
Q

What are the four major ethical issues?

A

1) Informed consent
2) deception
3) Protection from harm
4) privacy and confidentiality

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40
Q

Define ‘informed consent’

A

Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the purpose of the research and their role in it so they can make an informed decision about whether to participate

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41
Q

Define ‘deception’

A

A participant is not told the true aims of a study and so cannot give truly informed consent

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42
Q

Define ‘protection from harm’

A

Participants must not be exposed to any negative physical or psychological effects than they would in their normal day

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43
Q

Define ‘privacy’

A

The right to control information about yourself.

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44
Q

Define ‘confidentiality’

A

Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another and the trust that the information will be protected

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45
Q

Describe a way to overcome issues with informed consent

A

Participants issued with consent letter detailing relevant info that might affect their decision to participate. Should be made aware of their right to withdraw

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46
Q

Describe a way to overcome issues with deception

A

Debrief- Happens at the end of study. Participants made aware of true aims of study and can refuse for their data to be used.

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47
Q

How do you overcome issues with privacy and confidentiality?

A

Ensure anonymity. E.g. refer to participants using numbers or initials Remind during debrief that participants’ data will be protected

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48
Q

How do you overcome issues with protection from harm?

A

Debrief- made aware of true aims of study. Should be reassured that behaviour was typical and in extreme cases counselling/ long-term follow us care offered.

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49
Q

What is presumptive consent?

A

When consent is gained from a similar group of people to the participants

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50
Q

What is prior general consent?

A

When consent is given by participants to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will be deceptive

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51
Q

What is retrospective consent?

A

Participants asked for consent during the debrief. They may not have been aware of their participation in the study or been subject to deception.

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52
Q

Define ‘experimental design’

A

The organisation of participants across experimental conditions

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53
Q

Name the 3 types of experimental design

A

1) Independent groups, 2) Repeated measures, 3) Matched pairs

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54
Q

Define ‘independent groups’

A

Participants are allocated to just one experimental condition meaning different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable

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55
Q

Define ‘repeated measures’

A

The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable so all participants take part in all experimental conditions.

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56
Q

Define ‘matched pairs’

A

Participants paired on a variable and then one of each pair allocated to each experimental condition. Identical twins best to use

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57
Q

Give two advantages and disadvantages of independent groups design

A
  • No order effects
  • Less demand characteristics (less likely to guess aim)

-Participant variables have a bigger impact on results
- Need more participants (less economical)

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58
Q

Give two advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures design

A

-Participant variables are controlled
-Less participants needed

-Demand characteristics, order effects

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59
Q

What are order effects?

A

Occur in repeated measures design
Repeating 2 tasks could create boredom or fatigue leading to deterioration in performance on 2nd task. Or could lead to practice effects where participants’ performance improves.

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60
Q

Give 3 advantages and 2 disadvantages of matched pairs design

A

-Reduce impact of participant variables
-Less demand characteristics
-No order effects

  1. Time consuming
  2. Not possible to control all participant variables as can only match on variables known to be relevant, but could be others are important.
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61
Q

Outline one way to overcome order effects in a repeated measures design

A

Counterbalancing - Half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.

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62
Q

Give one way to overcome the higher chance of participant variables in an independent groups design?

A

Random allocation→ Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques.

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63
Q

What are the four types of experiments?

A

Laboratory, field, natural and quasi

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64
Q

Define ‘laboratory’ experiment

A

An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment. Experimenter manipulates IV.

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65
Q

Give 2 advantages and disadvantages of lab experiments

A

*High internal validity (as can control extraneous variables)
*Replication easy

*Low external validity (not easy to generalise findings to real world)
*High chance of demand characteristics

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66
Q

Define ‘field’ experiments

A

IV manipulated in a natural setting

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67
Q

Give 1 advantage and 2 disadvantages of field experiments

A

*High external validity (behaviour more likely to represent behaviour in real world)

*Lower internal validity- More extraneous variables
*Can be ethical issues (no consent/privacy)

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68
Q

Define ‘natural experiments’

A

Change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher, but would have varied naturally, without the researcher

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69
Q

Give 2 advantages and disadvantages of natural experiments

A

*allow research that may not be possible for ethical or ethical reasons
*High external validity (examines real life issues)

*Cannot demonstrate causal relationships because IV not directly manipulated
*Participants not randomly allocated to groups (high impact of participant variables)

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70
Q

Define ‘quasi experiments’

A

Where the IV is not something that varies, but is a condition that exists- e.g. age, gender

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71
Q

State 2 advantages and 1 disadvantage of a quasi experiment

A

*High internal validity (as can control extraneous variables)
*Replication easy

*Cannot randomly allocate participants so may be participant variables which act as confounding variables

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72
Q

Define a ‘naturalistic observation’

A

Behaviour is observed in an everyday setting in which the target behaviour would normally occur.

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73
Q

Define ‘controlled observation’

A

Behaviour is observed under controlled conditions where certain variables have been regulated by the researcher

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74
Q

Covert vs Overt observations

A

Covert -Observing people WITHOUT their knowledge or consent
Overt - Observing people WITH their consent and knowledge.

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75
Q

Participant vs non-participant observations

A

Participant - Researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing
Non-participant - Researcher remains outside the group they are watching.

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76
Q

State one advantage and 2 disadvantages of using a naturalistic observation

A

High ecological validity if covert- gives realistic picture of behaviour as it’s being observed in a context where it would normally occur

  • Hard to replicate
  • Uncontrolled extraneous variables.
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77
Q

State 1 disadvantage and 2 advantages of using a controlled observation.

A
  • Low ecological validity

1) Easy to replicate
2) Can focus on particular aspects of behaviour

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78
Q

State 1 advantage and disadvantage of using a covert observation.

A

Reduces likelihood of demand characteristics- increases validity of results.

Ethical issues as cannot give informed consent. (Allowed to observe in a circumstance they would expect to be watched by strangers - can seek retrospective consent)

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79
Q

State 1 advantage and disadvantage of using an overt observation

A
  • More ethical
  • Demand characteristics- ptpts are aware they’re being studied and so may change behaviour- reduces validity of results
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80
Q

State 1 advantage and disadvantage of participant observations

A

Increased insight from the ‘inside’ into the lives of people being studied that may not otherwise have been gained

Researcher may lose objectivity - “going native”. When the line between being a researcher and participant becomes blurred.

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81
Q

State 1 advantage and disadvantage of using a non-participant observation

A

More likely to be objective as not part of the group they are observing

May lose insight as they are too removed from the people they are studying.

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82
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

The researcher records any relevant behaviour with no system

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83
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

A researcher uses systems to organise observations e.g. behavioural categories and sampling procedures

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84
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

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85
Q

State 1 advantage and 2 disadvantage of using unstructured observations

A

Richer qualitative data is collected

1) Qualitative data= hard to record and analyse
2) Observer bias= researcher may only record those behaviours that catch their eye which may not be the most important or useful

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86
Q

State two advantages of using structured observations

A

1) Produces quantitative data which is easier to analyse
2) Less chance of observer bias

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87
Q

What are two sampling methods for a structured observation?

A

1) Event sampling
2) Time sampling

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88
Q

What is event sampling?

A

The researcher records every time the target behaviour or event occurs

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89
Q

What is 1 advantage and disadvantage of event sampling?

A

Useful when target behaviours happens infrequently (behaviour is rare and so may be missed if use time sampling)

If the target behaviour is occurring frequently, it may be difficult to record everything

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90
Q

What is time sampling?

A

The researcher records target behaviours in a given time frame e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds

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91
Q

What is a disadvantage of time sampling?

A

Instances when behaviour is sampled might be unrepresentative of observation as a whole

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92
Q

Define ‘self-report’ and examples

A

A method in which a person is asked to state/explain their feelings/opinions/behaviours.
Eg. Interviews and questionnaires.

93
Q

Define ‘open question’.

A

A question that does NOT have a set range of answers.

94
Q

What are 3 types of closed questions?

A
  1. Likert scale - uses a 5-point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
  2. Rating scale - participants give a value to represent their strength of feeling on a topic.
  3. Fixed choice option - a list of possible options are given for participants to choose from.
95
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

Made up of a pre-determined set of questions asked in a fixed order.

96
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

No set questions. New questions developed based on previous answers.

97
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

Has a set of questions but also free to ask follow-up questions.

98
Q

What is an interview schedule and why should it be standardised?

A

The list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover. Should be standardised to reduce the effect of interviewer bias.

99
Q

What are 2 strengths of using questionnaires?

A
  1. Cost-effective - gather large amounts of data quickly. Can be easily distributed.
  2. Respondents more willing to give personal information in a questionnaire than in an interview where they might feel self-conscious.
100
Q

What are 2 limitations of using questionnaires?

A
  • Social desirability bias
  • Acquiescence bias
101
Q

What are two strengths of using structured interviews?

A
  1. Easy to replicate due to standardised format.
  2. Easier to analyse as answers are more predictable.
102
Q

What are two limitations of using structured interviews?

A
  1. Not possible to deviate from the topic which may limit richness and validity of data
  2. Predetermined questions may not be relevant data for the investigation.
103
Q

3 Strengths of using unstructured interviews?

A
  • More flexible - allow interviewer to gain insight.
  • Increased validity as interviewer can clarify or probe for a deeper understanding
  • Rich qualitative data collected.
104
Q

What are 2 limitations of using unstructured interviews?

A
  1. Interviewer bias in terms of questions asked and interpretation of responses to form follow up questions
  2. Difficult to draw conclusions from potentially irrelevant info.
105
Q

5 things to avoid when constructing a questionnaire.

A
  • Leading questions
  • Emotive language
  • Jargon/fancy language
  • Double-barrelled questions
  • Double negatives
106
Q

How can double-barrelled questions be an issue when designing questions?

A

If a question contains two questions in one, the respondent may agree with the first part but not the second.

107
Q

What is a correlation?

A

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between 2 variables, called co-variables.

108
Q

Which type of graph is used to present correlations?

A

A scattergram.

109
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

As one co-variable increases or decreases, so does the other.

110
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A

As one co-variable increases or decreases, the other does the opposite.

111
Q

What is a zero correlation?

A

When there is no relationship between the co-variables.

112
Q

What are intervening variables?

A

Other variables which may have an effect on the co-variables.

113
Q

What is the difference between a correlation and experiment?

A

In an experiment, there is a manipulation of the IV to measure the effect on the DV, whereas with correlations there is no manipulation.

114
Q

1 Strength and 2 limitations of correlations

A
  1. Useful preliminary tool for research. Can lead to further research in a specific area
115
Q

What are 2 limitations of correlations?

A
  1. They do not provide a cause and effect relationship between variables. This can lead to misinterpretation in the media if presented as facts.
  2. Intervening variables. The 2 co-variables could be linked due to unknown intervening variables.
116
Q

What is qualitative vs quantitative data?

A

Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical.

Data that is expressed numerically

117
Q

What 1 strength and 2 limitations of using qualitative data?

A

High external validity - offers more richness of detail and meaningful insight.

1) Difficult to analyse. 2) Risk of subjective interpretation and bias.

118
Q

What are 2 strengths and 1 limitation of using quantitative data?

A

1) Simple to analyse. 2) Objective and less open to bias.

Narrower in scope, reduces insight.

119
Q

What is primary and secondary data?

A

Data that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purpose of the investigation.

Data that has been obtained by someone other than the person conducting the research. for a purpose other that the current one.

120
Q

What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of primary data?

A
  • Data is specific to the research question.

-Time consuming and expensive to collect

121
Q

What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of secondary data?

A
  • Easy and cheaper to access.
  • Content may not match researchers needs.
122
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

A process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic.

123
Q

What is a strength of using a meta-analysis?

A

Increases validity of conclusions because they are based on a wider sample.

124
Q

What is a limitation of using a meta-analysis?

A

Research designs in the different studies may vary. This means they are not truly comparable possibly leading to invalid conclusions

125
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends in a data set.

126
Q

What are measures of central tendency?

A

A descriptive statistic that provides information about an ‘average’ value for a data set. (MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE)

127
Q

What is the mean?

A

The arithmetic average of a data set that takes all data into account

128
Q

What is the median?

A

The middle value of a data set when the items are placed in rank order.

129
Q

What is the mode?

A

The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.

130
Q

What are measures of dispersion?

A

A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data are.

131
Q

Outline the 2 measures of dispersion?

A

Range (difference between highest and lowest item in a data set) and standard deviation (tells us how much scores deviate from the mean.)

132
Q

1 Strength and 1 limitation of using the mean

A

Most sensitive measure of central tendency. Takes into account all values.

Easily distorted by extreme values (lead us to misinterpret data as a whole)

133
Q

What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of using the mode?

A

More useful for nominal data.
Not always representative of the whole data

134
Q

What is a limitation of using the range?

A

Only takes into account the two most extreme values.

135
Q

What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of using the standard deviation?

A

A precise measure of dispersion.

Can be distorted by extreme values

136
Q

What are 5 ways of presenting quantitative data? Discrete, continuous, correlation

A
  1. In a table (All)
  2. Bar charts (Discrete)
  3. Scattergrams (Correlation)
  4. Histograms (Continuous)
  5. Line graphs (continuous)
137
Q

What is a normal vs skewed distribution?

A

Normal - A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern.

Skewed - A spread of data that is not symmetrical

138
Q

Where do mean median and mode go on a positive vs negative skew

A

From left to right on graph:

Positive - Mode, Median, Mean
Negative - Mean, Median, Mode

139
Q

What is a negative skew?

A

A type of distribution where the long tail is on the negative side of the peak and most distribution is concentrated on the right. Mean lower than median and mode.

140
Q

What is a peer review?

A

The practice of using independent experts to assess the quality and validity of scientific research.

141
Q

What are the 3 main aims of peer review?

A
  1. To allocate research funding
  2. To validate the quality and relevance of research 3. To suggest amendments or improvements.
142
Q

3 Strengths of peer review

A

Ensures research is high quality. Research is scrutinised to increase the probability that weaknesses will be identified and addressed.

Helps to prevent the publication of fraudulent research.

Ensured that published research is taken seriously.

143
Q

2 Limitations of peer review

A

Anonymity - Reviewers may use their anonymity to criticise rival researchers.
Publication bias - Tendency for editors to publish ‘headline grabbing’ findings. May ignore ground-breaking research to suppress opposition to mainstream theories.

144
Q

Why do we use statistical testing?

A

To determine whether differences between variables are statistically significant or occurred by chance.

145
Q

What is the difference between a one-tailed and two-tailed test?

A

One-tailed test = directional hypothesis

Two-tailed test = non-directional hypothesis.

146
Q

What is the sign test?

A

A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items.

147
Q

What are 3 conditions for using a sign test?

A
  1. Need to be looking for a difference. 2. Use a repeated measures design. 3. Nominal data.
148
Q

What is probability?

A

The likelihood that the data obtained is due to chance rather that the manipulation of the IV

149
Q

What is the accepted level of probability in Psychology?

A

0.05.

150
Q

What does it mean if the researcher accepts alternative
the hypothesis?

A

There is less than 5% probability that the results occurred by chance.

151
Q

Why might a researcher adopt a significance level of 0.01?

A

When researchers need to be more confident that results were not due to chance. For example, where there is a human cost (drug trials) or results are theoretically very important

152
Q

Which 3 pieces of information do you need to locate the critical value?

A
  1. The significance level desired
  2. The number of participants
  3. Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional.
153
Q

Why can psychologists never be 100% certain about their results?

A

They have not tested all members of the population under all possible arrangements.

154
Q

What are the 3 levels of measurement?

A
  1. Nominal 2. Ordinal 3. Interval.
155
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Named, distinct categories (sex, gender, eye colour)

156
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

The order of the data matters, but the actual value isn’t measurable (aggression, test scores)

157
Q

What is interval data?

A

Measured along a scale where the distance between one value and the next is equal. Standardised. (Temperature)

158
Q

Which two experimental designs are known as related?

A

Repeated measures and matched pairs design.

159
Q

Choosing a statistical test mnemonic

A

Chairs Save Children
Meanwhile Waiting Standing risks
Uncomfortability Right Peter

160
Q

Choosing a statistical test

A

Chi squared, Sign Test, Chi squared

Mann-Whitney, Wilcoxon, Spearmans rho

Unrelated t test, Related t test, Pearsons r

161
Q

What is a parametric test?

A

A group of inferential statistics that make certain assumptions about the parameters (characteristics) of the population from which the sample is drawn

162
Q

What is a case study?

A

An in-depth investigation of an individual, institution or event

163
Q

What are 3 strengths of using a case study?

A
  1. Provides rich, in-depth information- gives new insight into unusual and atypical forms of behaviour
  2. May generate hypotheses for future study and trigger the revision of an entire theory
  3. May be unethical to manipulate the variables
164
Q

What are two limitations of using a case study?

A
  1. Difficult to generalise from individual cases
  2. Information that makes it into the report is based on subjective selection and interpretation of researcher
165
Q

What is a content analysis?

A

A kind of observational study of qualitative data in which behaviour is observed indirectly via communications.

166
Q

What is a quantitative way of analysing data?

A

Coding- the analysis of communication by placing into categories and then counting

167
Q

What is a qualitative way of analysing the data?

A

Thematic analysis- involves identifying implicit/explicit ideas within data (often after coding)

168
Q

What are the 5 steps of carrying out a content analysis?

A
  1. Collect data
  2. Researcher reads through and familiarises themselves with data
  3. Researcher identifies coding units
  4. Re-analyse data and apply coding units
  5. Tally the number of times a coding unit appears
169
Q

What are the two strengths of using content analysis?

A
  1. High ecological validity- based on observation of what people actually do
  2. When resources can be accessed by others the content analysis can be replicated- tested for reliability
170
Q

What are the two limitations of using content analysis?

A
  1. Observer bias- different observers may interpret meaning of behavioural categories differently
  2. Culture biased- interpretation of written or verbal content will be affected by the language and culture of observer
171
Q

What is reliability?

A

The consistency of measurements. We would expect any measurement to produce the same data every time it is used.

172
Q

What are the two ways of assessing reliability?

A
  1. Test-retest
  2. Inter-observer reliability, inter-interviewer (for interviews), inter-rater (for content analysis)
173
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

The same assessment given to the same participants on two occasions to see if the same results are obtained. These results are correlated and if they have a correlation coefficient of .80 or more= high test-retest reliability

174
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. If the scores have a correlation coefficient of .80 or more= good inter-observer reliability.

175
Q

For test-retest, how is a correlation carried out to assess the reliability of for example a questionnaire?

A

Each participant’s score from the first questionnaire should be correlated with their results from second questionnaire. Shown on a scattergraph- scores from the first test plotted on one axis and scores from second plotted on other. Strength of correlation assessed using either Spearman’s rho or Pearson’s r test.

176
Q

How can researchers improve the reliability of an observation?

A

Ensure the behavioural categories are operationalised clearly – no overlapping and are measurable.

177
Q

How can researchers improve the reliability of a questionnaire?

A

Ensure questions are not too complex- replace some of the open, ambiguous questions with closed, fixed choice alternatives.

178
Q

How can researchers improve the reliability of an interview?

A

If possible use the same interviewer each time. If not then ensure interviewers are properly trained and use more structured interviews.

179
Q

How can researchers improve the reliability of experiments?

A

Ensure procedures are standardised

180
Q

What is validity?

A

Refers to the extent to which an observed effect is genuine

181
Q

What is internal validity?

A

The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure-are the effects due to the manipulation of the IV and not some other factor.

182
Q

What is external validity?

A

The extent to which results can be generalised outside of the research setting

183
Q

What are two forms of external validity?

A
  1. Temporal validity
  2. Ecological validity
184
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

A form of external validity- the extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other particular time periods

185
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

A form of external validity- the extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other settings

186
Q

What is mundane realism?

A

Refers to how realistic the task in the experiment is

187
Q

Outline the two ways of assessing validity

A
  1. Face validity - the extent to which test items look like what the test claims to measure
  2. Concurrent validity - The extent to which a psychological study relates to an existing similar measure.
188
Q

How can researchers improve the validity of experiments?

A
  1. Use a control group- can compare changes in DV due to effects of IV
  2. Standardised procedures- minimise participant and investigator effects
    Single blind procedure (reduces demand characteristic) and double-blind procedure (reduces demand characteristics and investigator effects)
189
Q

2 ways researchers improve the validity of questionnaires

A
  1. Include a lie-scale- assess consistency of responses and reduces effects of social desirability bias
    2.Ensure anonymity
190
Q

2 ways researchers improve the validity of observations

A
  1. Use a covert observation- participants’ behaviour more likely to be natural and authentic
    Ensure behavioural categories are not too broad, not overlapping or ambiguous.
191
Q

2 ways researchers can improve the validity of qualitative methods?

A
  1. Demonstrate interpretive validity- researcher’s interpretation of events matches participant’s. Researcher must include direct quotes from participant’s reports
  2. Triangulation- Use number of different sources as evidence (interviews with family, friends, personal diaries, observations etc.).
192
Q

What is the difference between the null and alternative hypothesis?

A

The null hypothesis states there will be ‘no difference’ between the conditions, whereas the alternative hypothesis states there will be a difference (either directional or non-directional)

193
Q

What is the purpose of a statistical test?

A

To determine which hypothesis is ‘true’ and thus whether we accept or reject the null hypothesis

194
Q

What is a Type I error?

A

Too lenient. Wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis (also known as a ‘false positive’, finding it significant when it wasn’t).

195
Q

What is a Type II error?

A

Too strict wrongly accepting the null hypothesis (known as ‘false negative’, finding it not significant when it was)

196
Q

What are the 7 sections which make up a scientific report?

A

Abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, referencing, appendix

197
Q

What is an abstract?

A

A short summary of all the major elements of the study (aim, hypothesis, methods, results and conclusion). Written after report is complete. Means researchers don’t have to read hundreds of full reports

198
Q

What is an introduction?

A

A literature review of the general area of investigation- looks at past research on a similar topic.
Includes the aim and hypothesis

199
Q

What is the method?

A

A description of what the researcher did including design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure and ethics.
Must show replicability

200
Q

What are the results?

A

A summary of the key findings of the investigation, including descriptive and inferential statistics

201
Q

What is the discussion?

A

Discussing the results in the context of the evidence presented in the introduction. Includes awareness of limitations of study and suggests how to address these. Includes the wider implications of the research

202
Q

What are the references?

A

A list of sources that are referred to or quoted in the articles

203
Q

What format does the reference of a book have?

A

author(s), date, title of book (in italics), place of publication, publisher

204
Q

What format does the reference of a journal article have?

A

Author(s), date, title of article, journal title (in italics), volume (issue number) (italics), page numbers

205
Q

What are 3 purposes for having a references section?

A
  1. Avoid plagiarism
  2. Credit other researchers’ work
  3. Allow readers to look up and read studies mentioned in report
206
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

207
Q

What is a paradigm shift?

A

The result of a scientific revolution- a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline

208
Q

What is theory construction?

A

Explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the facts. A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts.

209
Q

What is hypothesis testing?

A

Process of modifying theories by testing their validity. If a Scientist fails to find support for a hypothesis, the theory requires modification.

210
Q

What is falsifiability?

A

The possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong. This is why we start with a null hypothesis

211
Q

Why is falsifiability important in Science?

A

Karl Popper argued that the only way to prove a theory correct was to seek disproof (falsification)

212
Q

What is replicability?

A

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers in a number of contexts and circumstances- increases the validity of a study

213
Q

What is objectivity?

A

When all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process.

214
Q

What is the empirical method?

A

Objectivity is the basis of the empirical method= a method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing

215
Q

What are the 6 features of a science?

A

Empirical method, objectivity, replicability, theory construction, hypothesis testing, falsifiability.

216
Q

What is the economy?

A

The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services

217
Q

How has psychopathology research had implications for the economy?

A

1/3 of absences from work are due to mental health and cost the government £15 billion a year. Drug treatments and therapies have allowed sufferers to manage their conditions and return to work.

218
Q

When are researchers most likely to make type 1/ type 2 errors

A

Type 1 - when the significance level is too lenient (0.1)

Type 2 - when the significance level is too strict

219
Q

What is significance?

A

The researcher can state that the relationship between the variable is more than just chance.

220
Q

What is the appendix of a study?

A

Any material used for any part of the research. - consent forms, debrief forms, questionnaires, raw data ect.)

221
Q

Peer review - “Allocation of research funding” meaning

A

Research is paid for by various government and charitable bodies. These organisations have a duty to spend money responsibly and on research that is worthwhile.

222
Q

Peer review “validate the quality and relevance of research” meaning

A

All elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy.

223
Q

Peer review “ Suggesting amendments and improvements meaning”

A

May suggest minor revisions to improve the work. In extreme cases they may suggest the work is inappropriate for publicationa nd should be withdrawn

224
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

Wanting to appear more positive or perfect that reality in order to be accepted/admired. Reduces validity as they may not give truthful answers.

225
Q

What is a correlation co-efficient

A

A number between -1(perfect negative) and +1(perfect positive) that tells us the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables

226
Q

What is an interview?

A

A “real time” interaction where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thought and experiences

227
Q

What is a questionnaire

A

Written questions to assess a persons thoughts/ experiences

228
Q

What is population validity?

A

The extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other people

Research methods (1 decks)

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