Research methods Flashcards
Experimental method
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate. The purpose of the study.
Hypothesis
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study.
Directional hypothesis
States the direction of the difference or relationship.
Non-directional hypothesis
Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship.
Variables
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another.
Independent variable (IV)
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured.
Dependent variable (DV)
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by a change in the IV.
Operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Extraneous variables (EV)
Any variables, other than the independent variable (IV), that many affect the dependent variable (DV) if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially a nuisance variable that do not vary systematically with the IV.
Confounding variables
A kind of EV but the key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable.
Demand characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.
Investigator effects
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.
Randomisation
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
Experimental design
The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
Independent group design
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
Matched pair design
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable that may affect the dependent variable. The one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B.
Random allocation
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measure design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.
Laboratory (lab) experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects of the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
Field experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
Natural experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on.
Quasi-experiment
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key elements.The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or anyone else) - the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment.
Population
A group of people who are in the focus of a researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.
Sample
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
Sampling techniques
The method used to select people from the population. These include random sample, systematic sample, stratified sample, opportunity sample and volunteer sample.
Bias
In the context of sampling, when certain groups are over or under represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisation can be made to the target population.
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of participants is representative of the target population.
Ethical issues
These arise when a conflict exist between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of the research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
BPS code of ethics
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The code is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
Pilot study
A small-scale version of an investigation that rakes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc. work. The aim is to also allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary.
Naturalistic observations
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
Controlled observation
Watching at recording behaviour within a structured environment, where some variables are managed.
Covert observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
Overt observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
Non-participant observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
Structured observations
The researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as sampling techniques and behavioural categories.
Unstructured observations
Every instance of a behaviour is recorded in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviours you are interested in do not occur very often.
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.
Event sampling
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
Time sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame (e.g. every 60 seconds).
Self report technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.
Questionaire
A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.
Interview
A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (structured interview) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview).
Open questions
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish. E.g. Why did you take up smoking?
Closed questions
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter. E.g. Do you smoke? (yes/no)
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.
Co-variables
The variables investigated within a correlation, e.g. height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause-and-effect relationship.
Positive correlations
As one co-variable increases so does the other.
Negative correlation
As one co-variable increases the other decreases.
Zero correlation
When there is no relationship between the co-variables.
Qualitative data
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical. However, it may be converted to numbers for the purpose of analysis.
Quantitative data
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.
Primary data
Information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.
Secondary data
Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologist or government statistics.
Meta-analysis
The process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic. The aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion (the effect size) based on a range of studies.
Descriptive statistics
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.
Measures of central tendency
The general term for any measure of the average value of a set of data.
