Research Methods Flashcards
What is Primary data? + Evaluate
Data that the researcher collects first hand
+ Reliable, High control over EV’s
- Time-consuming
What is Secondary data? + Evaluate
Data that has already been collected by someone else and is not specific to the study
+ Faster, Cheaper
- Less reliable, reduced external validity
What is Meta-analysis? + Evaluate
Analyses multiple groups of secondary data and draws a new conclusion
+Larger sample, Generalisable
- Hard to analyse, lacks reliability & validity
What is Qualitative data? + Evaluate
Data that is expressed in words
+ Provides a deeper understanding
- Hard to analyse, provides more subjective data
What is Quantitative data? + Evaluate
Data that is numerical (correlations)
+ Easy to analyse
- Reduced external validity ( no depth)
What is a Laboratory experiment? + Evaluate
Takes place in an artificial enviroment, the researcher manipulates the IV to see the effect on the DV using standardised procedures
+ High EV control, high reliability
- Lacks external validity, demand characteristics
What is a Field experiment? + Evaluate
Takes place in a natural setting where the researcher has manipulated the IV to see the effect on the DV
+ Mundane realism
- Lack of control over EV’s
What is a Natural experiment? + Evaluate
Takes place in a natural setting where the IV is naturally occuring
+ High ecological validity
- Time-consuming, No EV control
What is a Quasi experiment? + Evaluate
An experiment which uses naturally occuring differences to group participants
+ High EV control, High validity
- Lack of external validity, demand characteristics
What is an Independent Groups design? + Evaluate
Separate groups take part in separate conditions, Results from each group are compared
+ Oder effects are not an issue
- Participant variables may affect DV, Less economical (more ppts needed)
What is a Repeated Measures design? + Evaluate
All participants take part in all conditions, data from the conditions are compared.
+ Participant variables are controlled, Economical (less ppts needed)
- Order effects: behaviour is adjusted for later conditions, due to knowledge gained from previous conditions
What is a Matched Pairs design? + Evaluate
Participants are paired together by characteristics (IQ, Gender, Age), each pair is assigned to different conditions each and results are compared
+ Order effects and Demand characteristics aren’t an issue
- Time consuming and Expensive (to match pairs and have 2 sets of ppts) , Participant variables are an issue and may effect the DV
What is a Naturalistic observation? + Evaluate
Observes behaviour in a natural setting
+ High ecological validity
- Hard to replicate and gain results (standardised procedure)
What is a Controlled observation? + Evaluate
Observes behaviour within a structured enviroment
+ Easy to replicate (using standardised procedures)
- Results may be ungeneralisable to real-world
What is a Covert observation? + Evaluate
When the researcher observes behaviour without the participants consent or knowledge
+ Mundane realism, avoids demand characteristics
- Unethical: no consent is given, invasion of privacy
What is an Overt observation? + Evaluate
Behaviour is observed with consent from participants
+ Ethical: consent is given
- May produce artificial behaviour
What is a Participant observation? + Evaluate
The researcher acts a participant and observes
+ Greater understanding of participants views
- May lack objectivity: researcher builds bond with ppts
What is a Non-Participant observation? + Evaluate
Researcher remains outside of the participant group that is being observed
+ Unlikely to lack objectivity
- Lack of insight into ppts views and behaviour
What is a Questionaire (types of questions)? + Evaluate
Pre-written questions which the participant responds too. Can have Open questions (collects in-depth information & Qualitative data) or Closed questions (fixed answers and limited amount of data)
+ Collects large amounts of data quickly, can have qualitative and quantitative data
- Untruthful answers are likely due to demand characteristics, can produce a response bias
What is a Correlation (types)? + Evaluate
The researcher investigates an association/ relationship between 2 variables (co-variables).
Positive= both variables increase
Negative= One increases, the other decreases
Zero= no relationship
+ Provides a measure of how variables are related, Quick and Economical: uses secondary data
- Doesn’t explain cause and effect (how variables are related), may include intervening variables
What is Correlation Co-efficient?
Shows how closely variables are related
-1.0: lowest, perfect negative
1.0: greatest, perfect positive
What is a Correlational Hypothesis?
States the expected relationship between the co-variables
What is a Structured Interview? + Evaluate
Questions are decided before the interview takes place, uses standardised procedures for every interview
+ Results are replicable
- Limits the depth and uniqueness of results
What is a Unstructured Interview? + Evaluate
Questions are decided during the interview (conversation), encourages depth within answers
+ Larger insight into ppts views, Flexible
- May collect irrelevant information, hard to make a conlusion
What is a Semi-Structured Interview?
Mostly prepared quesitons but the researcher is free to ask follow-up questions.
What are the 3 types of Central Tendancy? + Evaluate
- Mean: Calculates the average, used with no extreme values
+ Representative
- Easily distorted by extreme values - Median: middle value, used with extreme values
+ Not distorted by extreme values
- Ignores extreme values - Mode: Most common value, used with categorised data
+ Easy to calculate
- Inaccurate: can have multiple modes
What are the 2 types of Dispersion? + Evaluate
- Range: used with simple data, a calculation of the dispersion in scores
+ Easy to calculate
- Not representative - Standard deviation: used with sophisticated data, calculate the difference between each value and the mean, add all up and divide by amount of variables= variance. Square root the variance.
High=Bad Low=Good
+ Precise, Representative
- Affected by extreme values
What is an Aim?
A general statement which describes the purpose of the study.
To investigate/see/examine…
What is a Hypothesis (types)?
A prediction between the variables relationship
-Directional: Predicts the direction in which the variables are expected to occur (improves/reduces)
-Non-Directional: Predicts a relationship but doesn’t state in which direction they will have an effect
-Null: States there will be no relationship between the co-variables
What is Operationalisation?
When the researcher clearly defines variables - how they will be measured
What is a Pilot study?
A ‘Trial run’ which may not include the full amount of participants, used to identify any potential issues and modify the procedure.
What is a Single-blind procedure?
Participants are unaware of the researchers aim, used to control demand characteristics
What is a Double-blind procedure?
Neither the participants or the researcher are aware of the aims, used in drug-trials with placebos
What is a control group?
No change is made to their procedure- No IV, used for comparison to those experiencing the IV
What is a Target Population?
A group of people who the researcher is interested in.
What is a Sample?
Drawn from the target population, a small group which take part in the investigation
What is Random Sampling? + Evaluate
Uses a random number generator or names in a hat to select the sample
+ No researcher bias
- Difficult and time-consuming, may produce a sample that is unrepresentative
What is Systematic Sampling? + Evaluate
Every nth member is selected to be apart of the sample
+ No researcher bias, fairly generalisable
- Impossible to be fully representative
What is Stratified Sampling? + Evaluate
Composes equal amounts of participants from each strata (sub-group)
+ No researcher bias, representative
- Can’t reflect all differences between people, ungeneralisable
What is Opportunity Sampling? + Evaluate
Selects anyone willing to take part
+ Convenient, Cheap, Efficient
- Research bias, Ungeneralisable results to the target population
What is Volunteer/ Self-select Sampling? + Evaluate
Participants volunteer to take part (application)
+ Efficient, minimal effort
- Volunteer bias: certain type of people (outgoing), ungeneralisable
What is demand characteristics?
Any cues from the researcher which may give away the purpose of the investigation.
What is an extraneous variable?
Variables that do not vary systematically with the IV and can often be controlled before the experiment begins (environmental + external)
What is a confounding variable?
Variables that do vary systematically with the Iv so we are unsure what changed the DV (Internal- PV, apparatus)
What is external validity?
The degree to which results can be applied outside of the study
What is internal validity?
Confidence in the cause + effects of the results
What are ethical issues?
The conflict between participants rights and the researchers needs
What is informed consent?
Making the participants aware of the aims, procedures , rights and how their data will be used. This could cause artificial behaviour
How do you deal with informed consent?
Participants are given a consent form
What are the types of consent?
Retrospective- when the participant gives consent after the research has taken place
Presumptive= A similar group of participants are asked if it would be acceptable or if they would consent
General- Participants consent to a number of studies
What is deception?
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants, can be justified if no harm was caused
What is protection from harm?
Participants should not be at any more risk then they would be in their everyday lives. Not to be embarrassed or put under pressure and given the right to withdraw
What is privacy?
Participants can control what information about them is used
What is confidentiality?
The right to have your personal data protected (Data Protection Act)
Participants should be referred to as numbers, not personal names
What is the BPS?
British Psychological Society: ethical guidelines which must be followed by researchers, ensured participants are respected
What is a structured observation? Evaluate
Behaviour categories are used, allows researchers to only collect necessary data
+ Quantitative data: easy to analyse
- Lacks depth
What is an unstructured observation? Evaluate
No categories used, produces rich data as any information is recorded
+ Richer data collected
- Qualitative: harder and time consuming analysis
What are Behaviour Categories? + Evaluate
Similar to operationalisation,
Target behaviours are defined and made observable and measurable
+Easy to observe target data
- Observer bias: Lacks validity
What is event sampling? + Evaluate
Counting how many times a certain event/behaviour occurs
+ Good for infrequent behaviour
- Can overlook some behaviours
What is time sampling? + Evaluate
Recording behaviour within a pre-established time-frame
+Reduces how often observations should occur
-May be unrepresentative of whole observation
What is inter-observer reliability?
2 researchers should observe using standardised operationalised procedures
Increases validity and reduces bias , more objective results
What is social-desirability bias?
Participants answer questions in a manner that researchers will favour
What is Acquiescence bias?
A response bias on which participants tend to agree with the questions when in doubt
What are investigator effects?
When a researcher unconsciously influences the results
When is a table used?
When data has been converted to descriptive statistics, A summary paragraph must be underneath explaining results
When are bar charts used?
With categorised/discrete data
When are histograms used?
With continuous data
When are scattergrams used?
Used for correlations , associations between co-variables
What are line graphs used for?
to represent continuous data
What is a normal distribution?
A symmetrical spread of data. has the same mean, mode, median
What is a positive skew?
Most data is displayed towards the left
Mode is highest point, median then mean
What is a negative skew?
Most data displayed on the right, Mean is the lowest (left side), median and then mode is the highest point
What is peer review + conditions?
Why does it need to take place?
using specialists to ensure any research is high quality + accurate
Know where to allocate research funding, Validating quality and relevance of research, To suggest improvements to research
Anonymity: review used to sabotage other researchers
Publication bias: Only intriguing or positive results are published
Slowed rate of change: Reviewers may criticise new views which they don’t believe in
How does Psychology affect the economy?
It can produce a ‘ripple effect’ in society as it shows new ideas, social change and modification.
Health: funding towards mental health due to new findings
Education: knowledge of how children learn and adapt
Leisure: To boost mental health
Depression: SSRI’s, drug therapy, CBT
