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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what does validity mean?

A

the main idea of, does a test measure what it claims to be measuring

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2
Q

what is internal validity?

A
  • refers to the extent in which a study’s results can be attributed to the independent variable and not the extraneous variables
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3
Q

what is an example of internal validity?

A
  • investigating views on teachers through a questionnaire, to make it internally valid the questions have to be directly about teachers and not ‘should we have a 4 day week’.
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4
Q

what is external validity?

A
  • the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to other populations, settings and overtime
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5
Q

what is an example of external validity?

A
  • assessing a new medication but outside of the experimental setting
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6
Q

what is a setting also known as?

A
  • ecological validity
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7
Q

what is ‘overtime’ also referred as?

A
  • temporal validity
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8
Q

what is reliability?

A
  • the consistency of measurements and if we get the same results repeatedly, to see if we can actually trust a researchers findings
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9
Q

what is internal reliability?

A
  • a test that is consistent within itself that needs the same criteria to gain accurate results
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10
Q

what is external reliability?

A
  • if a test is consistent overtime e.g. if previous methods have worked the same with different people or location
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11
Q

what is a lab experiment?

A
  • an experiment that is conducted in highly controlled environments, however not always in a lab
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12
Q

what are the strengths of a lab experiment?

A
  • high control over control variables and extraneous variables, so only the IV affects the DV
  • high internal validity
  • replication is more likely due to control- this ensures findings are valid and reliable
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13
Q

what are the weaknesses of a lab experiment?

A
  • lacks generalisability as environment is artificial
  • lacks external validity as it is an unfamiliar environment so people may act differently
  • demand characteristics are more likely as participants know they are being studied
  • low mundane realism as the environment is artificial
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14
Q

what is meant by mundane realism?

A

the extent to which a study matches the real world situation, to which it’s results will be applied

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15
Q

what is a field experiment?

A
  • the IV is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting
  • the researcher goes to the participants usual environment rather than a lab
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16
Q

what are the strengths of a field experiment?

A
  • higher mundane realism due to a more natural environment therefore behaviour is more valid and authentic
  • high external validity as participants do not know they are being studied
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17
Q

what are the weaknesses of a field experiment?

A
  • loss of control over control variables and extraneous variables, causing affect between the IV and DV
  • ethical issues rise due to consent and invasion of privacy
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18
Q

what is a natural experiment?

A
  • an experiment where there is no control over the IV and cannot change it e.g. a natural disaster
  • this experiment would occur whether or not the experimenter was there
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19
Q

what are the strengths of a natural experiment?

A
  • provides the opportunity to research a field that is difficult to study for practical or ethical issues
  • high external validity due to relating real world issues
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20
Q

what are the weaknesses of a natural experiments?

A
  • a naturally occurring event may only happen rarely which can make it hard to generalise
  • participants cannot be randomly allocated which means the cause of effect between the IV and DV becomes unclear
  • if tested in a lab, demand characteristics and realism can become an issue
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21
Q

what is a Quasi experiment?

A

this experiment has an IV that is based on an existing difference between people ( e.g. gender/age ) so no one manipulates the IV: it simply exists and the experimenter cannot randomly allocate the participants to conditions

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22
Q

what are the strengths of a quasi experiment?

A
  • often carried out in controlled settings so has a high validity
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23
Q

what are the weaknesses of a quasi experiment?

A
  • cannot randomly allocate participants so there may be control variables
  • the experimenter has not deliberately changed the IV so cannot claim the IV has caused change
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24
Q

what is sampling?

A

sampling is a technique used to select participants to take part in their investigation

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25
Q

what is a population?

A

a large population of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying e.g. students

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26
Q

what is a target population?

A

a subset of the general population and these smaller groups will be representative of the target population and findings can be generalised however some samples can cause bias

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27
Q

what is a representative sample?

A

a sample that reflects that characteristics of the people in the target population, so results can be a higher validity

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28
Q

what is population validity?

A

the extent to which results from research can be generalised to other groups of people

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29
Q

what are the 5 types of sampling?

A
  • random sampling
  • systematic sampling
  • stratified sampling
  • opportunity sampling
  • volunteer sampling
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30
Q

what is random sampling?

A
  • this is when all members of the target population have the same equal chances of being selected
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31
Q

what are the advantages of random sampling?

A
  • no researcher bias
  • unbiased as the confounding and extraneous variables will be divided between groups equally, enhancing internal validity
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32
Q

what are the disadvantages of random sampling?

A
  • time consuming as you need a list of members of the population
  • unrepresentative as some participants may refuse to take part meaning you can end up with a volunteer sample
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33
Q

what is systematic sampling?

A

a predetermined system where every nth member is selected from the sampling frame

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34
Q

what are the advantages of systematic sampling?

A
  • objective, as once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence over who is picked, so avoids researcher bias
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35
Q

what are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?

A
  • time consuming
  • participants may refuse resulting in a volunteer sampling
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36
Q

what is stratified sampling?

A

a sampling technique that reflects the varying proportions of people in particular subgroups ( strata ) withing the wider population

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37
Q

what are the advantages of stratified sampling?

A
  • no researcher bias as the selection within each stratum is done randomly
  • representative data as it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population, so generalisation is possible
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38
Q

what are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?

A
  • time consuming to identify strata and contact people from each
  • not completely representative of the target population as the strata cannot reflect all the difference between the people of the wider population
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39
Q

what is opportunity sampling?

A

this is when the researcher selects anyone who happens to be willing and available, they take the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study

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40
Q

what are the advantages of opportunity sampling?

A
  • easy method of recruitment as no sample list is needed
  • time consuming and less costly
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41
Q

what are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A
  • unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific areas so findings cannot be replicated
  • researcher bias as they have complete control over the selection of participants and can avoid people they do not want
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42
Q

what is volunteer sampling?

A

involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample e.g. the researcher may place an ad in a newspaper

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43
Q

what are the strengths of volunteer sampling?

A
  • less time consuming as there is quick access to willing participants
  • participants are more engaged and more likely to cooperate in the study
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44
Q

what are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?

A
  • volunteer bias as the study may attract a particular profile of a person, meaning generalisability is then affected
  • demand characteristics are created as volunteers are more likely to change their behaviour to please the researcher
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45
Q

what is a pilot study?

A
  • a small-scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken
  • they are carried out to allow potential problems of the study to be identified and the procedure to be modified to deal with these, this saves money and time
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46
Q

what are the disadvantages of pilot studies?

A
  • instructions / questions may be unclear and unnecessary
  • the procedure could be too much for one researcher to cope with on their own
  • observation could be poorly operationalised or nothing worth observing at the time sampled
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47
Q

what procedures should be considered when carrying out a questionnaire?

A
  • check that the questions are clear and make sense
  • check questions relate to the research aim
  • can you complete all questions in the time given
48
Q

what procedures should be considered when carrying out an observation?

A
  • do your behavioural categories work
  • are the observers trained to notice the behaviour
  • does the time / event sampling work for the study
49
Q

what procedures should be considered when carrying out an experiment?

A
  • does your method match your aim
  • have you got enough stimuli to fill the time
  • do you have too much to do in your method
  • do your instructions make sense to the participants
50
Q

what are the 2 types of procedures?

A

single-blind procedure
double-blind procedure

51
Q

what is a single-blind procedure?

A
  • a research method in which the researchers do not tell the participants the aim of the research until the end of the study to reduce demand characteristics
52
Q

what is a double-blind procedure?

A
  • a research procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenter knows the aims of the study
  • these procedures are normally administrated by someone who is independent of the investigation, this reduces the investigator effect
53
Q

what is a control group / condition in research?

A
  • sets a baseline where the results from the experimental condition can be compared to the control condition
  • if there is a significantly greater change in the experimental group compared to the control than the researcher is able to conclude that the cause of effect was the IV
54
Q

what is an observation?

A
  • a way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them
  • observation if often used withing an experiment as a way of assessing the DV
55
Q

what are the strengths of an observation?

A
  • can capture authentic behaviour, so there is less risk of demand characteristics
56
Q

what are the limitations of an observation?

A
  • observer bias, as different people interpret situations differently
  • the observers interpretations of the situation may be affected by their expectations. this can be fixed by having more then one observer
57
Q

what is a naturalistic observation?

A
  • an observation that takes place where the target behaviour would normally occur
58
Q

what are the strengths of a naturalistic observation?

A
  • high external validity as in a natural context behaviour is likely to be more spontaneous
  • ecological, so can be more generalisable to every day life
59
Q

what are the limitations of a naturalistic observation?

A
  • there is no control over confounding and extraneous variable, so there is no clear cause and effect
60
Q

what is a controlled observation?

A
  • an observation that takes place in a structured environment e.g. control over variables
61
Q

what are the strengths of a controlled observation?

A
  • can be replicated due to standardised procedures, so has a high internal validity
62
Q

what are the limitations of a controlled observation?

A
  • has a low external validity, as behaviour may be contrived as a result of the setting so findings cannot be applied to everyday experiences ( generalised )
63
Q

what is a covert observation?

A
  • this is an observation where participants are NOT aware that they are being studied
64
Q

what are the strengths of a covert observation?

A
  • reduced demand characteristics as ppts do not know they are being watched so their behaviour will be more natural, this increases the internal validity of the findings
65
Q

what are the limitations of a covert observation?

A
  • ethically questionable, as people may not want behaviour recorded even in public, so ppts right to privacy may be affected through: deception and a lack of informed consent
66
Q

what is an overt observation?

A
  • an observation where participants know they are being studied
67
Q

what are the strengths of an overt observation?

A
  • more ethically acceptable as ppts have given their consent to be studied, so they have the right to withdraw
68
Q

what are the limitations of an overt observation?

A
  • higher chance of demand characteristics as the ppts have the knowledge of being studied which influences behaviour and reduces the internal validity of the findings
69
Q

what is a participant observation?

A
  • when the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are observing
70
Q

what are the strengths of a participant observation?

A
  • can lead to a greater insight as the researcher experiences the situation as the ppts do, this enhancing the external validity of the findings
71
Q

what are the limitations of participant observations?

A

going native, meaning the researcher may identify too strongly with those they are studying, which threatens the objectivity and internal validity of the findings

72
Q

what is a non-participant observation?

A
  • an observation where the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are observing
73
Q

what are the strengths of a non-participant observation?

A
  • more objective as the researcher maintains an objective distance so less chance of bias, and an increase in the internal validity of the findings
74
Q

what are the limitations of the non-participant observation?

A
  • lack of insight as the researcher may be too far removed from those they are studying and that may reduce the external validity of the findings
  • the observation is open to the observer bias for example stereotypes the observer is aware of
75
Q

what are the main ways of recording data?

A
  • unstructured observations
  • structured observations
76
Q

what is an unstructured observation?

A
  • an observation in which the researchers simply write down everything they see, so the observations are rich in detail
77
Q

what are the strengths of an unstructured observation?

A
  • more richness and depth of detail throughout the data
78
Q

what are the limitations of an unstructured observation?

A
  • this observation produces qualitative data ( non-numerical ) and this makes it more difficult to record and analyse
  • there’s a risk of observer bias as objective behavioural categories are not present in this type of observing, so the researcher may only record behaviours that catch their eye
79
Q

what is a structured observation?

A
  • an observation used when there is too much going on in a single observation for the researcher to record everything, so they focus on target behaviours using behavioural categories
80
Q

what are the strengths of a structured observation?

A
  • recording is easier as it produces numerical discussions of quantitative data, so analysing and comparing the behaviour is straightforward
  • there is less risk of observer bias
81
Q

what are the limitations of a structured observation?

A
  • not much depth of detail within the data
  • difficult to achieve higher interobserver reliability as filling the predetermined lists in is subjective
82
Q

what are behavioural catergories?

A
  • this is when a target behaviour, which is being observer, is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable e.g. aggressive behaviour can be broken down to shouting, punching, swearing etc
83
Q

what are the strengths of behavioural catergories?

A
  • data collection of behavioural categories are structured and objective
84
Q

what are the limitations of behavioural categories?

A
  • researchers have to ensure categories are observable, measurable and self-evident- if not data collection is unreliable
  • categories have to be exclusive and not overlap e.g. smiling and grinning
85
Q

what are the methods of sampling used when recording behaviour?

A
  • event sampling
  • time sampling
86
Q

what is meant by event sampling?

A
  • involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual / group
87
Q

what are the strengths of event sampling?

A
  • is useful when the target behaviour happens quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used
88
Q

what are the limitations of event sampling?

A
  • if complex behaviour is being observed, important details of the behaviour may be overlooked by the observer
  • if the behaviour is very frequent there could be counting errors and can be difficult to judge the beginning and ending of a behaviour
89
Q

what is meant by time sampling?

A
  • involves recording behaviour withing a pre-established time frame e.g. may note down the observations of a target individual every 30 seconds
90
Q

what are the strengths of time sampling?

A
  • it reduces the number of observations that has to be made, so it is less time consuming
91
Q

what are the limitations of time sampling?

A
  • the small amount of data that you collect withing that time frame ends up being unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
92
Q

what is inter observer reliability?

A
  • this is when single observers may miss the important details or only notice events that confirm their hypothesis ( investigator bias )
  • so inter observer reliability help to reduce biasness and make data objective, by having 2 observers and having the data checked for consistency
93
Q

how can the data be checked for consistency?

A
  1. observers can familiarise themselves with behavioural categories
  2. observe behaviour at the same time, perhaps in a small-scale pilot study
  3. they can compare the data they have recorded and discuss any differences in interpretation
  4. observers analyse the data and inter observer reliability is calculated by correlating each pair of observations made, and an overall figure is produced
94
Q

what is a questionnaire?

A
  • these are pre set lists of written questions
    ( or items ) to which a participant responds
  • they are used to assess thoughts and feelings of ppts
  • they can also be used as part of an experiment to assess the DV
95
Q

what are the positives of a questionnaire?

A

cost effective- can gather large amounts of data quickly and researcher does not have to be present when completed, this reduces the effort involved and makes questionnaires cost effective
straightforward to analyse- especially if closed fixed-choice questions are used, meaning statistical data can be easily converted to graphs and charts for comparison

96
Q

what are the negatives of a questionnaire?

A

responses may not always be truthful- respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light and this may influence their answers
response bias- respondents may favour a particular kind of response e.g. they always agree, this means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way

97
Q

what types of questions are asked in a questionnaire?

A
  • closed questions
  • open questions
98
Q

what is a closed question?

A
  • a question in which respondents have limited options e.g. yes or no
99
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of closed questions?

A

easy to analyse- produces qualitative data that can be turned into quantative data this makes it easier to draw conclusions
however responses are restricted and ppts are forced into an answer that may not represent true feelings so may reduce the validity of the finding

100
Q

what is an open question?

A
  • this is a question in which ppts have a whole range of answers and respondents can answer in any way
  • produces qualitative data
101
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of an open question?

A
  • responses are not restricted so answers are more likely to provide detailed, unexpected information. this means there is likely to have more external validity than statistics
  • responses are difficult to analyse so there will be a wider variety of answers produced compared to closed questions. this means that it may be forced to reduce data to statistics
102
Q

what are some types of questionnaire desgins?

A
  • likert scales
  • rating scales
  • fixed choice option
103
Q

what is meant by a likert scale?

A
  • this is a scale in which the respondent indicates their agreement or otherwise a statement using a scale usually five points
  • the scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree
104
Q

what is meant by a rating scale?

A
  • a rating scale gets respondents to identify a value that represents their strengths of feeling about a particular topic e.g. how entertaining do you find zombie films on a scale of 1-5, 1 being very entertaining 5 being not at all entertaining
105
Q

what is meant by a fixed-choice option?

A
  • this option includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them e.g. for what reasons do you watch zombie films
    A. entertainment
    B. amusement
    C. to escape
    D. education
106
Q

what is a structured interview?

A
  • this is a list of pre determined questions that are asked in a fixed order
107
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured interview?

A
  • easy to replicate because of a standardised format, the format also reduces differences between interviewers
  • interviewers cannot elaborate so they cannot deviate from the topic or explain their questions therefore this may limit the richness of data collected
108
Q

what is a unstructured interview?

A
  • an interview with no set questions, there is a general topic to be discussed but the interaction is free-flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate
109
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of an unstructured interview?

A
  • there is greater flexibility where points can be followed up as they arise, so there is more chance of gaining insights into interviewees worldwide view and collect unexpected information
  • increased chance of interviewer bias as there is closer dialogue between interviewer and interviewee meaning more opportunity for unconscious cues
110
Q

what is a semi-structured interview?

A
  • an interview with a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers ask further questions based on previous answers
111
Q

what should happen during an interview?

A

1) 1-1 interviews should be in a quiet room to then allow the interviewee to open up
2) interviewers should have a standardised list of questions that they need to cover to reduce interviewer bias
3) should be a rapport, meaning interviewers should begin with some neutral questions to make ppts relaxed
4) interviewees should be reminded that answers are treated with strictest confidence

112
Q

what things should be avoided when doing an interview?

A
  1. overuse of jargon
  2. emotive language and leading questions
  3. double barrelled questions and double negative
113
Q

what is meant by the overuse of jargon?

A
  • this is the overuse of technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field
114
Q

what is meant by emotive language and leading questions?

A
  • a researchers attitude towards a particular topic can be clear from the way in which the question is phrased
  • this can be leading which guides respondents towards a particualr answer or words can be too emotive and should be replaced with neutral alternatives
115
Q

what is a double-barrelled question and a double negative?

A
  • a double barrelled question contains two questions in one, the issue being that respondents may agree with one of the questions and not the other
  • a double negative can be difficult for ppts to understand e.g. I am not unhappy with my job ( agree / disagree )

psychology paper 2 (4 decks)

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