Research Methods Flashcards
What is meant by a ‘research method’ in Psychology?
A technique for gathering data on the mind and behaviour
What makes an ‘experiment’ different from other research methods?
It involves an IV and a DV.
What is an experimental method?
To identify the effect one variable has on another, so how one variable causes a change in a different one.
What is the independent variable?
The variable in an experiment which is changed or manipulated.
What is the dependent variable?
The variable in an experiment which is measured, to see how it has been affected by the IV.
What’s a control condition?
Provides a baseline measure of behaviour without experimental treatment.
What is the experimental condition?
The researcher has manipulated variables in order to investigate whether there is a difference in behaviour.
What does it mean to ‘operationalise’ a variable?
To make it specific and measurable.
What is an extraneous variable?
Variables, other than the IV, which could have an effect on the DV.
What is meant by validity?
Whether we are measuring what we inteded to measure.
How can the presence of extraneous variables affect the validity of research?
They can reduce the validity of findings, as they mean the experimenter is no longer measuring what they intended (no longer just the affect of the IV on the DV).
What is the difference between situational variables and participant variables? (Types of extraneous variables)
Situational variables are to do with the environment or situation. Participant variables are to do with differences between participants.
What is meant by order effects?
Whereby the order in which participants complete the different conditions of an experiment influence how they behave (this includes gaining practise, becoming tired or bored).
What is meant by demand characteristics?
When participants think they know the aim of the research and change their behaviour, acting in a way that they think the psychologist wants them to.
What is meant by investigator effects?
When the researcher unintentionally gives clues to participants about how they should behave, which then alters their behaviour.
What is a standardised procedure?
Where the procedure of a study is the same across all conditions, and for all participants.
How does counterbalancing and randomisation work?
Counterbalancing: where half of the participant group experience condition A then condition B, while the other half experience condition B then condition A. Randomisation: when participants are randomly assigned to condition A or B as their first or second test condition. Both control order effects.
What does a control condition do?
Provides a baseline measure of behaviour without experimental treatment.
What is an aim?
General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, essentially the purpose of the study.
What is a hypothesis?
Testable statement predicting the outcome of a study which is made at the start.
What is a null hypothesis?
Predicts there will be no significant difference.
What is an alternative/ experimental hypothesis?
Predicts a significant diference and can be directional or non-directional.
What is a directional hypothesis?
Suitable when background research indicates the probable direction of results in a study. It is made clear what differnece may be seen eg. ‘less’ ‘more.’
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
Used when there is no previous research to suggest the dircetion the results will go in or previous findings have been contradictory.
Template for a non-directional hypothesis
There will be a significant difference in DV measured OPERATIONALISED DV for participants in IV CONDITION 1 compared o those who IV CONDITION 2.
Template for a null hypothesis
There will be a significant difference in DV measured OPERATIONALISED DV for participants in IV CONDITION 1 compared o those who IV CONDITION 2. Any difference will be due to chance.
Template for a directional hypothesis
Participants who IV CONDITION 1 will be more/less OPERATIONALISED DV than participants IV CONDITION 2.
What are independent groups?
Involves multiple separate groups of participants completing only one condition of a study.
What are the strengths of independent groups?
Simple
Eliminates order effects
Removes practise effect
Reduces demand characteristics
What are the weaknesses of independent groups?
Weak control of participant variables
Uneconomical with participants
What is random allocation?
- Identify participants by name or number
- Put them in hat/computer
- Assign alternative names/numbers to group 1 and 2
Why is random allocation useful?
Removes researcher bias
Increases validity
Removes participant bias
What are repeated measures?
Involves the same participants completing both / all conditions of a study.
What are the strengths of repeated measures?
Eliminates individual differences
Requires fewer participants and more data is collected from each participant.
What are the weaknesses of repeated measures?
Creates oder effects
Requires counterbalancing (complicated)
Higher risk of demand characteristics
What is randomisation?
When participants are randomly assigned to condition A or B as their first or second test condition. Both control order effects.
What are matched pairs?
Involves two separate groups of participants completing only one condition of a study, yet these groups are matched on important characteristics, such as age or gender.
What are the strengths of a matched pairs design?
Good control of participant variables
Order effects are eliminated
Demand characteristics are reduced
Same test can be used in both conditions
What are the weaknesses of a matched pairs design?
Time consuming to match participants
Complete matching isn’t possible
Uneconomical with participants
What is a confounding variable?
A variable which has affected the outcome.
What is the difference between situational variables and participant variables? (Types of extraneous variables)
Situational variables are to do with the environment or situation. Participant variables are to do with differences between participants.
What is meant by demand characteristics?
When participants think they know the aim of the research and change their behaviour, acting in a way that they think the psychologist wants them to.
How to reduce demand characteristics?
Single blind technique
What is meant by investigator effects?
When the researcher unintentionally gives clues to participants about how they should behave, which then alters their behaviour.
How to reduce investigator effects?
Double blind technique
Computerised testing
What is standardisation?
Using the same procedure for all participants.
What is a lab experiment?
Conducted in a highly controlled environment and the IV is manipulated and the effects on the Dv are measured. The researcher has lots of control over the participants and the conditions. Participants can be randomly assigned to conditions therefore they can be considered a ‘true’ experiment.
Strengths of a lab experiment
Easy to set up
High internal validity
Check consistency of findings
Quantative data
Weaknesses of a lab experiment
Low ecological validity
Findings may not be generalisable
Demand characteristics
Low mundane realism
Ethical issues in a lab experiment
Social pressure
Right to withdraw
What is a field experiment?
Researcher manipulates the IV in a natural more everyday setting.
Strengths of a field experiment
High ecological validity
Reduction of demand characteristics
Good mundane realism
Weaknesses of a field experiment
Confounding variables
Less replicable
Ethical issues- cannot consent or withdraw
What is a natural experiment?
Measures the effect of an IV on a DV
Researcher has no control over the IV
The researcher cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions so not a ‘true’ experiment.
Strengths of a natural experiment
Often has high external validity
Allows for research which may not of been possible otherwise
Weaknesses of a natural experiment
Less condidence inferring cause and effect
Rare situations
Researcher can’t claim the IV caused the DV
What is a quasi experiment?
Based on pre-existinf differences, no one has manipulated this variable it is simply there. The DV may be naturally occuring or manipulated. The conditions can’t be randomly allocated therefore it may not be considered a ‘true’ experiment.
Strengths of a quasi experiment
Often takes place under controlled conditions
Weaknesses of a quasi experiment
No random allocation may lead to confounding variables
Can’t claim IV caused DV
What is the ‘target population’?
The group of people being investigated, to which the findings will be generalised.
What is the ‘sample’?
A selection of the target population that is directly studied in an investigation.
Who are the ‘participants’?
The people who take part in a study.
What does it mean for a sample to be ‘representative’?
Whether results of a study represent the whole population, not just the sample used.
What does it mean if findings from a study are ‘generalisable’?
Extent to which results can be generalised to groups of people other than the sample.
What does it mean for a sample to be ‘bias’?
Certain groups are under or over represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which findings can be generalised.
What is opportunity sampling?
Selecting anyone who is available and willing to take part at the time.
Strengths of opportunity sampling
Convinient
Time saving
Weaknesses of opportunity sampling
Unrepresentative
Researcher bias
What is random sampling?
Every member of the target pop. has equal chance of being selected. Every member given a no. which is placed in a hat and then a selection are drawn out at random.
Strengths of random sampling
Free from researcher bias
Weaknesses of random sampling
Difficult
Time consuming
Not necessarily generating a representative sample
Participants may refuse to take part
What is systematic sampling?
Every nth member of the target population is selected. A sampling frame is produced from which the target population is organised then the sample is selected.
Strengths of systematic sampling
Avoids researcher bias
Fairly representative
Weaknesses of systematic sampling
Process of selection can interact with hidden traits meaning its neither random or frequent.
What is stratified sampling?
Subgroups are identified within the target pop. Participants are obtained from each subgroup, using a random sampling method, in proportion to their occurrence in the target population.
Strengths of stratified sampling
Avoids researcher bias
Representative sample meaning findings can be generalised
Weaknesses of stratified sampling
Requires a detailed knowlege of the target population which may not be available
Time consuming
What is volunteer sampling?
Participants who are willing to volunteer themselves to take part in a study (often means advertising the study).
Strengths of volunteer sampling
Little effort from researcher
Everyone has given consent
Weaknesses of volunteer sampling
Bias and unrepresentative sample
Difficult to generalise
Demand chararcterstics
What are ethical issues?
Codes or rules of conduct considered by psychologists when carrying out research to protect participants from harm.
What does the following ethical issue refer to, and how can a researcher deal with it? Informed consent.
The agreement of participants to take part in a study once they are fully aware of the aims. Researchers may ask for retrospective consent, asking participants if they happy to have their results included in the study after it has concluded, and they have been told the aims.
What does the following ethical issue refer to, and how can a researcher deal with it? Deception.
When participants are misled or lied to about the nature of the investigation. If participants are deceived, then a debrief should be held - a meeting after the study has ended, where participants are told the true aim of the research.
What does the following ethical issue refer to, and how can a researcher deal with it? Right to withdraw.
Participants should be aware that they are allowed to leave the study at any point. Participants should be reminded before, during, and after a study that they can leave.
What does the following ethical issue refer to, and how can a researcher deal with it? Confidentiality.
Participants’ personal information should remain confidential. Participants real names should not be used - they should be referred to by a fake name or by a number.
What does the following ethical issue refer to, and how can a researcher deal with it? Protection from harm.
Participants should be protected from both physical and psychological harm. The researcher should terminate the experiment if the level of psychological or physical harm is higher than expected.
What is presumptive consent?
Similar group to the participants are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agree the original participants are presumed to give consent.
What is prior general consent?
Participants give consent to take part in a number of studies-including the one where they will be decieved.
What is retrospective consent?
Involves asking participants for their consent after the study (debriefing.)
Features of a consent form
In this study we will ask you to …
Reasons why you shouldn’t do it
All information confidential
Time/length
Ask questions
Contact point
Sign
What is cost benefit analysis?
If the research risks harm a cost benefit analysis will assess the potential harm compared with the potential benefits. The final decision is made by an unbias secind party (ethics committee)
