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Psychology Paper 1 > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is a theory?

A

A theory is a suggested explanation for behaviour.
Psychologists test theories using objective research methods.

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2
Q

What is an aim?

A

A general statement that explains the purpose of a study.

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3
Q

What is a variable?

A

Anything that can change or vary within an investigation.

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4
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

The variable that the experimenter is deliberately changing.
There are usually two levels of the IV to enable comparisons.

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5
Q

What is a dependant variable?

A

What is measured by the researcher.
The only thing that should affect the DV is the change in the IV.

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6
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis?

A

A statement of the relationship or difference between variables.

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7
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

A statement of no relationship or difference between variables.

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8
Q

What is cause and effect?

A

The only thing that should cause a change in the DV is the IV.
If the DV does change, then the experimenter has established cause and effect.

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9
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Unwanted variables that could affect the DV if they are not controlled.
For example noise, temperature, lighting.
Controlled best in a laboratory.

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10
Q

What are standardised instructions?

A

Standardised instructions involve giving the participants exactly the same information about the study to ensure what is said to them does not act as an EV.

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11
Q

What are standardised procedures?

A

Researcher uses exactly the same methods and instructions for all participants in a research study.

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12
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Using chance (e.g. such as tossing a coin) to control for the effects of bias when designing a research study.

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13
Q

What are quantitative and qualitative data?

A

Quantitative methods use data that can be counted.
Qualitative methods use data that can be expressed in words and are non-numerical, such as a description.

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14
Q

What are laboratory experiments?

A

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment

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15
Q

What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?

A

A strength is that EVs can be controlled. Therefore the researcher can be sure the IV caused the DV. This means that cause and effect can be established.
Another strength is the use of standardised procedures. This means replication is possible. Therefore it is possible to confirm the validity of results.

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16
Q

What are the weakness of laboratory experiments?

A

A weakness is that the environment is not like everyday life. This means that participants’ behaviour is less ‘normal’. Therefore you can’t generalise results to the wider world.
Another weakness is that participants may know they are being tested. Therefore they may change their behaviour to help the experimenter. This means that data collected is not valid.

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17
Q

What are field experiments?

A

An experiment conducted in a natural setting.
Experimenter manipulates the IV.

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18
Q

What are the strengths of field experiments?

A

A strength is that they are often more realistic than laboratory experiments. This is because they are conducted in a natural environment. This enhances the validity of the results.
Another strength is that there is some control over EVs. This is because it is possible to use standardised procedures. This means cause-and-effect conclusions are more valid.

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19
Q

What are the weaknesses of field experiments?

A

A weakness is that the researcher may lose control of some EVs. In the real-life setting it is more difficult to control variables. This makes it more difficult to show cause and effect.
Another weakness is there may be ethical issues. People may not know they are involved in an experiment. This means they cannot give their informed consent.

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20
Q

What are natural experiments?

A

An experiment conducted in a natural or laboratory setting.
Experimenter does not manipulate the IV. It would have changed anyway.

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21
Q

What are the strengths of natural experiments?

A

A strength is that natural experiments usually have high validity. This is because the variables are naturally occurring and relate to everyday life. This is not always the case, e.g. making comparisons between men and women (a naturally-occurring variable) may be quite artificial.
Another strength is that the DV is often tested in a lab. Therefore EVs can be well-controlled because standardised procedures can be followed.

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22
Q

What are the weaknesses of natural experiments?

A

A weakness is that there may be few opportunities for this kind of research. This is because it may focus on natural events that occur infrequently. This reduces the usefulness of the method.
Another weakness is that there may be a greater amount of EVs that could affect the results. For example, unique characteristics of the participants cannot be controlled because they cannot be randomly assigned to groups.

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23
Q

What are independent groups?

A

Separate groups of people for each level of the IV.
There is usually a control group and an experimental group.

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24
Q

What is a strength of independent groups?

A

A strength is that order effects are not a problem. The participants only do the task once. This means they won’t benefit from practice.

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25
What is a weakness of independent groups?
A weakness is there are different participants in each group. This means that participant variables may affect the results and act as an EV. This reduces the validity of the results.
26
What are repeated measures?
All participants take part in all the conditions.
27
What are the strengths of repeated methods?
A strength is that there are no participant variables. Each participant is compared against themselves rather than other people. This enhances the validity of the results. Another strength is that fewer participants are needed. In an independent groups design you need twice as many participants to get the same number of data items. This makes repeated measures less expensive.
28
What is a weakness of repeated measures?
A weakness is that order effects occur when participants are tested twice. The order in which they do the tasks may make a difference, e.g. a practice effect. This affects the validity of the results.
29
What is counter balancing?
Half the participants complete the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.
30
What are matched pairs?
Participants are tested in terms of variables relevant to the study. Participants are then matched and one member of each pair goes in each group.
31
What are the strengths of matched pairs?
A strength is that there are no order effects as participants are tested only once. Another strength is there are fewer participant variables. This is because those taking part are matched on a variable that is important for the experiment. This enhances the validity of the results.
32
What is a weakness of matched pairs?
A weakness is that matching participants takes time and effort. It doesn’t control all participant variables. This means it may not be worthwhile.
33
What is random sampling?
Putting names of all members of the target population into a hat/computer programme so that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
34
What are the evaluations of random sampling?
A strength is that there is no bias. Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. This makes the sample more representative. A weakness is that it takes more time and effort than other methods. This is because you need to obtain a list of all the members of your target population and then randomly select them. The effort may not be worth it.
35
What is opportunity sampling?
Selecting the most readily available group of people.
36
What are the evaluations of opportunity sampling?
A strength is that it is easy, quick and cheap to carry out because you simply choose people who are nearby. This makes the method less expensive. A weakness is that the sample is likely to be unrepresentative of the population. This is because the sample is drawn from one place. This reduces the generalisability of the results.
37
What is systematic sampling?
Selecting participants in proportion to their frequency in the target population.
38
What are the evaluation points of stratified sampling?
A strength is that it is the most representative of all the sampling methods. The researcher ensures that all subgroups are represented in proportion to the numbers in the target population. This enhances representativeness. A weakness is that it is very time-consuming. It may take a while to recruit participants and sort them into subgroups. This discourages researchers from using this method.
39
What are ethical issues?
A conflict between participants’ rights and well-being and the need for researchers to obtain valuable results. The well-being of participants needs to be protected at all times.
40
What is informed consent?
At the start of a study participants should be given information about the purpose of the study. They should be told they can leave at any time (right to withdraw) so an informed decision can be made. If the researcher doesn’t reveal the aim at the start participants must be informed at the end.
41
What is deception?
Participants should not be lied to or misled about the aims of the study. Mild deception is justifiable. Major deception is used but this is only permitted if the benefits justify the action.
42
What is protection from harm?
Participants’ physical and psychological safety should be protected at all times. Stress and embarrassment is included in this. Participants must be reminded they can leave at any time.
43
What is privacy?
Participants have the right to control information about themselves. It is acceptable to make observations of people in public places but a public place is also quite private.
44
What is confidentiality?
Personal data should be protected and respected.
45
What is the BPS guidelines?
A code of conduct that every professional psychologist in the UK has to follow so that they can deal with ethical issues that crop up in their research.
46
How to deal with informed consent?
Participants (or guardians) sign a form that tells them what is expected of them. If this is not possible at the start, they sign a form at the end of the study (retrospective consent).
47
How to deal with deception and protection from harm?
Participants should be given a full debriefing at the end of an investigation to explain the true aims and/or reduce any distress. They should be offered counselling and the chance to withdraw their data.
48
How do you deal with privacy and confidentiality?
All participants should be anonymous. They can be referred to by a number or initials.
49
What are interviews?
Face-to-face, real-time contact between an interviewer and interviewee. Can take place over the phone or via text.
50
What are structured interviews?
Interviewer reads out a list of prepared questions. Can ask follow-up questions, but these are also prepared beforehand.
51
What are unstructured interviews?
Interviewer has a general aim, but few if any questions are prepared in advance. New questions are created based on what the interviewee has said. A lot like a conversation.
52
What are semi-structured interviews?
Some questions decided in advance. Follow-up questions emerge from the answers.
53
What are the evaluation points of interviews?
A strength is that interviews produce a lot of information. This is especially true of unstructured interviews. This means that unexpected results may occur. Another strength is that insight can be gained into a person’s thoughts and feelings. Observations only show what people do not how they think about their behaviour. This provides a different perspective. A weakness is that data can be difficult to analyse. This is because of the breadth of information collected. This makes it hard to draw clear conclusions. Another weakness is that people may feel less comfortable giving personal information face-to-face. This is especially true if questions are on a sensitive topic. This may limit the amount of information collected.
54
What are observation studies?
A researcher watches or listens to participants, and records data.
55
What is naturalistic observation?
Naturalistic observation is recorded in a place where it would normally occur and nothing is changed in the environment. If a level of control is needed a controlled observation will be used, e.g. Zimbardo’s prison study.
56
What is covert vs overt observation?
Covert observation = participants are not aware their behaviour is being recorded. Overt observation = participants are told in advance.
57
What is participant vs non-participant observation?
Participant observation = researcher becomes part of the group s/he is studying. Non-participant observation = researcher remains separate from the people s/he is studying.
58
What are categories of behaviour?
The observer breaks the target behaviour into different categories of behaviour. Each category should be observable and obvious so that it can be counted each time it occurs. Flirting behaviours could be broken down into four categories: eye contact, smiling, laughing and touching.
59
What is interobserver reliability?
Two observers should produce the same record of behaviour. To establish interobserver reliability the researcher creates categories of behaviour, observers record the same sequence of behaviour, then they compare their data (correlate) and talk over differences. If the observations are not similar the categories may need to be altered or rewritten.
60
What are the strengths of observation?
A strength is greater validity. Unlike questionnaires/interviews observational data are based on what people do rather than what they say they do! This enhances the validity of the data. Another strength is that observational studies look at real-life behaviour. People may not be aware they are being observed. Therefore the data collected will have greater validity.
61
What are the weaknesses of observation?
A weakness is there may be ethical issues. You cannot always gain people’s consent when you are observing them in public places. This means that some observations should not be conducted. Another weakness is observer bias. Observer’s expectations can influence what they see. Therefore the observations lack validity.
62
What are correlations?
Correlations show how things are linked together. They tell us the strength and direction of the association or relationship between co-variables.
63
What are co-variables?
Correlations are quantitative so co-variables are reduced to numbers. For example, aggression could be reduced to how aggressive a person is on a scale of 1–10.
64
What are scatter diagrams?
Correlations are plotted on a scatter diagram. One co-variable goes on the x-axis and the other one goes on the y-axis. A dot is placed where they meet. Shows direction and strength of the correlation.
65
What are positive correlations?
As one co-variable increases the other co-variable increases. For example, number of people in a room and noise.
66
What are negative correlations?
As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, number of people in a room and amount of personal space.
67
What is zero correlation?
No relationship between co-variables. For example, time taken to complete a crossword and number of packets of crisps sold in a local shop each week.
68
What are the strengths of correlation?
A strength is that correlations are a good starting point for research. If two variables are related this gives researchers ideas for future investigations. Another strength is that correlations can be used to investigate more complex relationships. For example the curvilinear relationship between people’s alertness and time of day. This means correlation has many uses.
69
What are the weaknesses of correlation?
A weakness is that correlations do not tell us whether one co-variable causes the other. This means it is not possible to show cause and effect. This limits the usefulness of the technique. Another weakness is that intervening variables may affect the co-variables. This is because there is no control of extraneous variables. This means it is possible to draw a conclusion that is wrong.
70
What are case studies?
An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, event or institution. Often involves unusual or unexpected people/events, but can also be used with everyday experiences (e.g. mother adjusting to going back to work).
71
What type of data does a case study collect?
Qualitative
72
What is a longitudinal case study?
Tend to take place over a long period of time. This may mean collecting data from the past or following a person/event for many years.
73
What are the strengths of case studies?
Researchers tend not to have a specific aim. This means they are often more open-minded and less blinkered by what they hope to discover. This increases the validity of the results. A good method for studying rare behaviour that can’t be investigated using experiments. This gives us a greater insight into topics that may not be studied by other research.
74
What are the weaknesses of case studies?
Often only focus on one individual or event. This means it is difficult to generalise the results beyond the particular person or event being studied. This reduces the validity of the results. The researcher may be subjective. The information collected may be biased by the researcher’s own ‘reading’ of the case. Therefore conclusions drawn may lack validity.
75
What is reliability?
A measure of consistency. If you can repeat a measurement and get the same results, then it is reliable.
76
What is validity?
Relates to whether a result is a true reflection of ‘real-world’ behaviour.
77
What are the evaluation points of quantitative data?
A strength of quantitative data is it can be easy to analyse. Data can be converted to averages and then graphs and charts. This means that groups of people can easily be compared. A weakness is it lacks depth and detail. This is because we obtain little information about thoughts or abilities. Therefore it doesn’t reflect how complex things are in the real-world.
78
What are the evaluation points of qualitative data?
A strength of qualitative data is it is in more depth and detail than quantitative data. The researcher can gain more insight as the participant is free to express their thoughts and feelings. This increases the validity of the data. A weakness is it is more difficult to analyse. It may be hard to summarise material and draw conclusions. This means conclusions may be based on the researcher’s opinion.
79
What is primary data?
Data obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project.
80
What are the evaluation points of primary data?
A strength of primary data is that it suits the aims of the research. It is authentic because it comes first hand from the participants themselves. This means the data may be more useful. A weakness is that it takes more time and effort to collect primary data. The researcher must design and carry out a study rather than using readily available secondary data. This slows the process down and increases expense.
81
What is secondary data?
Second hand data from sources such as other studies or government statistics. It has been collected by someone else.
82
What are the evaluation points of secondary data?
A strength is it is easy and convenient to use. This is because it has already been checked and collected, unlike primary data. This reduces expense. A weakness is that secondary data may not quite fit what the researcher wants. For example, the data may come from out-of-date or poorly designed studies. This may reduce the validity of the research.
83
What are descriptive statistics?
Descriptive statistics express numbers in a way that gives an immediate impression of the overall pattern.
84
What is range?
Represents spread. Tells us whether a set of data are close together or spread out. Arrange data in order and subtract lowest from highest score.
85
What are the evaluation points of range?
A strength is that the range is easy to calculate. A weakness is that it can be distorted by extreme scores.
86
What is mean?
The mathematical average of a set of scores. Add up all the scores in the data set and divide by the number of scores that there are.
87
What are the evaluation points of mean?
A strength is that it uses all of the data when it is calculated, so is the most sensitive measure. A weakness is that the mean can be distorted by extreme scores, which may be less reflective of the others scores in the distribution.
88
What is median?
The middle value in a set of data. Order numbers from lowest to highest and identify the middle number.
89
What are the evaluation points of median?
A strength is that it is not affected by extreme scores. A weakness is that it is less affected by other scores, so it is less reflective of the ‘typical’ value.
90
What is mode?
The most common score in a set of data.
91
What are the evaluation points of mode?
A strength is that it is very easy to calculate – you just pick the most common value. A weakness is that the mode can be quite unrepresentative of the set of scores overall.
92
What are scatter diagrams?
To display correlation. One co-variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis. A dot is placed where co-variables meet.
93
What are frequency tables?
The frequency of a score is the number of times the score occurs. A frequency table is a systematic way of representing data so it is organised in rows and columns. A frequency table displays a record of how often an event occurred, using tallies.
94
What is a histogram?
Continuous data. Frequency is represented by height of vertical columns with no spaces between the bars.
95
What is a bar chart?
Data is not continuous, i.e. it could be placed in any order Separate categories on x-axis that are spaced apart. Frequency is represented by height of vertical columns.
96
What is normal distribution?
Special type of histogram which has a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped curve. The mean, median and the mode are all at the highest peak.

Psychology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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